Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number
Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number
Photograph
A photograph (also known as a photo) is an image created by light falling on a photosensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic image sensor, such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see. The process and practice of creating such images is called photography.
Etymology[edit]
The word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς (phos), meaning "light," and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing," together meaning "drawing with light."[1]
History[edit]
The first permanent photograph, a contact-exposed copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based "heliography" process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. The first photographs of a real-world scene, made using a camera obscura, followed a few years later at Le Gras, France, in 1826, but Niépce's process was not sensitive enough to be practical for that application: a camera exposure lasting for hours or days was required.[2] In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process.
After Niépce's death in 1833 Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He exposed a silver-plated copper sheet to iodine vapor, creating a layer of light-sensitive silver iodide; exposed it in the camera for a few minutes; developed the resulting invisible latent image to visibility with mercury fumes; then bathed the plate in a hot salt solution to remove the remaining silver iodide, making the results light-fast. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype, after himself. Its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the required exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical and widely popular.
The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the mirror-like image surface and the particular viewing conditions required to see the image properly. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera. Inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the less expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype, which made use of the recently introduced collodion process. Glass plate collodion negatives used to make prints on albumen paper soon became the preferred photographic method and held that position for many years, even after the introduction of the more convenient gelatin process in 1871. Refinements of the gelatin process have remained the primary black-and-white photographic process to this day, differing primarily in the sensitivity of the emulsion and the support material used, which was originally glass, then a variety of flexible plastic films, along with various types of paper for the final prints.
Color photography is almost as old as black-and-white, with early experiments including John Herschel's Anthotype prints in 1842, the pioneering work of Louis Ducos du Hauron in the 1860s, and the Lippmann process unveiled in 1891, but for many years color photography remained little more than a laboratory curiosity. It first became a widespread commercial reality with the introduction of Autochrome plates in 1907, but the plates were very expensive and not suitable for casual snapshot-taking with hand-held cameras. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type. These early processes produced transparencies for use in slide projectors and viewing devices, but color prints became increasingly popular after the introduction of chromogenic color print paper in the 1940s. The needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process.
Types of photographs[edit]
Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-step process the light-sensitive film captures a negative image (colors and lights/darks are inverted). To produce a positive image, the negative is most commonly transferred ('printed') onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to manufacture motion picture films.
Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, yielding positive transparencies. Such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film.
Originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color. Although methods for developing color photos were available as early as 1861, they did not become widely available until the 1940s or 1950s, and even so, until the 1960s most photographs were taken in black and white. Since then, color photography has dominated popular photography, although black and white is still used, being easier to develop than color.
Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like the Hasselblad Xpan on standard film. Since the 1990s, panoramic photos have been available on the Advanced Photo System (APS) film. APS was developed by several of the major film manufacturers to provide a film with different formats and computerized options available, though APS panoramas were created using a mask in panorama-capable cameras, far less desirable than a true panoramic camera, which achieves its effect through a wider film format. APS has become less popular and has been discontinued.
The advent of the microcomputer and digital photography has led to the rise of digital prints. These prints are created from stored graphic formats such as JPEG, TIFF, and RAW. The types of printers used include inkjet printers, dye-sublimation printer, laser printers, and thermal printers. Inkjet prints are sometimes given the coined name "Giclée".
The Web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, PhotoBucket and 500px are used by millions of people to share their pictures.
Preservation[edit]
Paper folders[edit]
Ideal photograph storage involves placing each photo in an individual folder constructed from buffered, or acid-free paper.[4] Buffered paper folders are especially recommended in cases when a photograph was previously mounted onto poor quality material or using an adhesive that will lead to even more acid creation.[5] Store photographs measuring 8x10 inches or smaller vertically along the longer edge of the photo in the buffered paper folder, within a larger archival box, and label each folder with relevant information to identify it. The rigid nature of the folder protects the photo from slumping or creasing, as long as the box is not packed too tightly or under filled. Folder larger photos or brittle photos stacked flat within archival boxes with other materials of comparable size.[6]
Polyester enclosures[edit]
The most stable of plastics used in photo preservation, polyester, does not generate any harmful chemical elements, but nor does it have any capability to absorb acids generated by the photograph itself. Polyester sleeves and encapsulation have been praised for their ability to protect the photograph from humidity and environmental pollution, slowing the reaction between the item and the atmosphere. This is true, however the polyester just as frequently traps these elements next to the material it is intended to protect. This is especially risky in a storage environment that experiences drastic fluctuations in humidity or temperature, leading to ferrotyping, or sticking of the photograph to the plastic.[4] Photographs sleeved or encapsulated in polyester cannot be stored vertically in boxes because they will slide down next to each other within the box, bending and folding, nor can the archivist write directly onto the polyester to identify the photograph. Therefore, it is necessary to either stack polyester protected photographs horizontally within a box, or bind them in a three ring binder. Stacking the photos horizontally within a flat box will greatly reduce ease of access, and binders leave three sides of the photo exposed to the effects of light[7] and do not support the photograph evenly on both sides, leading to slumping and bending within the binder. The plastic used for enclosures has been manufactured to be as frictionless as possible to prevent scratching photos during insertion to the sleeves. Unfortunately, the slippery nature of the enclosure generates a build-up of static electricity, which attracts dust and lint particles. The static can attract the dust to the inside of the sleeve, as well, where it can scratch the photograph.[4] Likewise, these components that aid in insertion of the photo, referred to as slip agents, can break down and transfer from the plastic to the photograph, where they deposit as an oily film, attracting further lint and dust. At this time, there is no test to evaluate the long-term effects of these components on photographs. In addition, the plastic sleeves can develop kinks or creases in the surface, which will scratch away at the emulsion during handling.[7]
Handling and care[edit]
It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them. Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level. Every time the photograph bends, even a little, this can break down the emulsion.[8] The very nature of enclosing a photograph in plastic encourages users to pick it up; users tend to handle plastic enclosed photographs less gently than non-enclosed photographs, simply because they feel the plastic enclosure makes the photo impervious to all mishandling. As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it; simply remove the folder from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the folder. If for some reason the researcher or archivist does need to handle the actual photo, perhaps to examine the verso for writing, he or she can use gloves if there appears to be a risk from oils or dirt on the hands.
Myths and beliefs[edit]
Because daguerreotypes were rendered on a mirrored surface, many spiritualists also became practitioners of the new art form. Spiritualists would claim that the human image on the mirrored surface was akin to looking into one's soul. The spiritualists also believed that it would open their souls and let demons in. Among Muslims, it is makruh (disliked) to perform salah (worship) in a place decorated with photographs.[9] Photography and darkroom anomalies and artifacts sometimes lead viewers to believe that spirits or demons have been captured in photos.[10]
Legality[edit]
The production or distribution of certain types of photograph has been forbidden under modern laws, such as those of government buildings,[11] highly classified regions,[12] private property, copyrighted works,[13][14] children's genitalia,[15] child pornography and less commonly pornography overall.[16] These laws vary greatly between jurisdictions.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^"Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 16 January 2017.
- ^"The First Photograph - Heliography". Archived from the original on 6 October 2009. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
- ^"A Stream of Stars over Paranal". ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
- ^ abc"5.6 Storage Enclosures for Photographic Materials". Retrieved 16 January 2017.
- ^Norris, Debbie Hess. "Caring for Your Photographic Collections." Library of Congress. 9 Feb. 2008, LOC.gov
- ^"How Should I Store my Photographic Prints?" Preservation and Archives Professionals. The National Archives and Records Administration. 9 February 2008, Archives.gov
- ^ abInternational Organization for Standardization. ISO 18902:2001(E). Geneva, Switzerland: ISO Office, 2007.
- ^Baggett, James L. "Handle with Care: Photos." Alabama Librarian. 54.1 (2004): 5.
- ^Rizvi, Sayyid. Your Questions Answered. p. 32.
- ^"Photos That AREN'T Paranormal". thoughtco.com.
- ^"Hong Kong e-Legislation". Government of Hong Kong. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
- ^Masco, Joseph. ""Sensitive but Unclassified": Secrecy and the Counterterrorist State." Public Culture 22.3 (2010): 433-463.
- ^Deazley, Ronan (2010). "Photography, copyright, and the South Kensington experiment". Intellectual Property Quarterly. 3: 293–311.
- ^Turnbull, Bruce H. "Important legal developments regarding protection of copyrighted content against unauthorized copying." IEEE Communications Magazine 39.8 (2001): 92-100.
- ^Slane, Andrea. "From scanning to sexting: The scope of protection of dignity-based privacy in Canadian child pornography law." Osgoode Hall Law Journal 48 (2010): 543.
- ^Taylor, Max; Quayle, Ethel; Holland, Gemma (2001). "Child pornography, the Internet and offending". ISUMA - The Canadian Journal of Policy Research. 2 (2): 94–100.
External links[edit]
DICOM Standard Status
See Supp 23
Democracy
Notice: This is only a preliminary collection of relevant material
The data and research currently presented here is a preliminary collection or relevant material. We will further develop our work on this topic in the future (to cover it in the same detail as for example our entry on World Population Growth).
If you have expertise in this area and would like to contribute, apply here to join us as a researcher.
This entry is currently being updated and extended. Below is a draft version that may contain some inconsistencies (June 2019).
A democracy is a political system with institutions that allows citizens to express their political preferences, has constraints on the power of the executive, and provides a guarantee of civil liberties. In an autocracy, political preferences cannot be expressed and citizens are not guaranteed civil liberties. Anocracies (a term we’ll often use in this entry) are regimes that fall in between — they are neither fully autocratic nor democratic.
This entry presents the empirical research on the slow rise of democracy over the last two centuries.
All our charts on Democracy
Number of Democracies
The majority of the world’s countries are now democracies. The chart here depicts the slow rise of the number of democracies over the last two centuries.
The end of World War I led to the birth of many democracies. However, during the 1930s, many of these young democracies then reverted to being autocratic.
After World War II, the number of democracies began growing again. But it was the fall of the Iron Curtain circa 1989 that led to a more dramatic increase in the number of democracies.
Share of World Population Living in Democracies
The chart below distinguishes between six different political regimes and shows the number of people in the world governed under each. To instead see the shares of the world population governed under each regime, click on ‘Relative’.
During the 19th century, most of the world’s population lived in colonial empires, autocracies, or anocracies. The late 19th century saw a limited expansion of democracies. And since that time, there has been a general upward trend in the share of the world population living under democracies, save for the period before and during World War II.
During the second half of the 20th century, colonies gained independence and more countries became democracies. Today, more than half the world’s population live in a democracy. And of those who still live in autocracies, four-fifths are Chinese.
World maps of political regimes over 200 years
The world has changed. Two centuries ago, most countries were autocracies or colonies; today, most are democracies. In the map and chart below, each country receives a Polity IV score, which goes from −10 (full autocracy) to 10 (full democracy). For convenience, in this entry, we’ll refer to this as the “Democracy Score”. By default, 2015 data are shown, but you can move the slider (bottom) to see data in each of the past 200 years.
Most countries in Europe and the Americas are now democracies. Some parts of Africa — especially in the West and the South — have democratized. So too have countries in Asia, with India being the world’s largest democracy. Many countries are full democracies (score of 10), including Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Mongolia.
Political freedom is a very recent achievement
The map below shows the age of each democracy at the end of 2015. (In black are countries that were not democracies in 2015.)
We see that a democratic world is a very recent achievement. Also, economic success tends to go with political freedom. The countries that democratized first were also mostly the countries that first achieved sustained economic growth. One might thus hope that the relatively high growth rates enjoyed by today’s poorer countries will lead to further political freedom.1
Countries with better education in the past are more likely to be democracies today
A long-standing theory in political science argues that education is a key determinant of the emergence and sustainability of democracy, because it promotes political participation at the individual level and fosters a collective sense of civic duty.
And so, under this theory, we should expect that education correlates positively with measures of democratization in subsequent years. This is precisely what we see in the data and chart below. Those countries that had higher average education levels in 1970 are also those countries that are more likely to be democratic today (you can read more about measures of education level in our entry on Global Rise of Education).
Again, these data should be interpreted carefully. They merely show a correlation and do not imply a causal link. That is, these data do not imply that education leads to democracy.
Nonetheless, academic work does suggest that there is such a causal link. Even after controlling for many other country characteristics, the positive relationship between education and democracy holds (see, for example, Lutz, Crespo-Cuaresma, and Abbasi‐Shavazi 20102).
Living conditions in democratic countries
Democratic countries are richer – the exception are fossil-fuel exporters
The chart below plots GDP per capita against the Democracy Score. Observe that autocracies (score between −10 and −6) that do not export large quantities of fossil fuels tend to be poor. No such country enjoys GDP per capita of more than 15,000 international-$.
People in democracies are healthier
The chart below plots each country’s child mortality against its Democracy Score, for the year 2015.
We see that few autocratic countries enjoy child mortality rates under 10 per 1,000. In contrast, democracies scoring 7 or more often enjoy child mortality rates below 10 or even 5 per 1,000.
Here we have considered only child mortality, but a broader analysis of countries’ health outcomes would also show that more generally, good health is linked with political freedom.
(Note though that the chart below does not take into account the age of each democratic regime. If there is indeed a link between good health and political freedom, we might expect that older democracies enjoy better health. This would entail a deeper analysis that we have not done here.)
Democracies are better at protecting human rights
The right to vote and determine who holds political power is in itself a fundamental right. And this right is, by definition, upheld and protected by all democracies.
But of course, there are many other human rights. Are democracies also better at protecting these other human rights?
As noted in our entry on human rights, it is difficult to measure the degree to which human rights are protected. In our opinion, the best available measure is the Human Rights Protection Score developed by Fariss (2014)3
The Human Rights Protection Score focuses on the protection of the physical integrity of citizens. In particular, it takes into account torture, government killing, political imprisonment, extrajudicial executions, mass killings and disappearances.
The chart below plots each country’s Human Rights Protection Score against its Democracy Score. There is a clear positive correlation. Countries with high Democracy Scores tend also to have high Human Rights Protection Scores. Indeed, except for Singapore and Oman, every country whose Human Rights Protection Score exceeds 0.5 has a Democracy Score is a democracy.
Mulligan, Gil, and Sala-i-Martin (2004)4 investigate the link between democratic rule and the human rights protection in a sample of 121 counties controlling for other important variables. The authors find that countries that are more democratic are less likely to execute, regulate religion, or censor the press.
Does democratization impact education?
Above, we mentioned that improved education might cause greater democratization. Now, is there also a reverse causal effect? That is, does democratization lead to improved education? Once again, this is a tricky question for social science, because we need to distinguish between the two arrows of causation.
Evidence that democratization leads to better education
Gallego (2010)5 presents the most careful analysis that we are aware of. It presents evidence that democracy has indeed had a causal effect on primary-school enrollment.6
Other papers deal with the issue of possible reverse causality in a simpler fashion and use lagged observations of democracy as a possible determinant for the level of education. For example, Baum and Lake (2001) find that democratization increased secondary-school enrollment.7
Also, Acemoglu, Naidu, Restrepo, and Robinson (2015)8 find that democracy is associated with an increase in secondary schooling.
We now briefly discuss several channels through which democratization might improve education:
Electoral competition in democracies increases the incentive to abolish school fees
Harding and Stasavage (2014)9
find that democratization has a positive effect on primary education. Their explanation is that electoral competition in democracies incentivizes politicians to abolish primary-school fees. They argue that democratization has a much smaller effect on the provision of school inputs and consequently the quality of schooling — the reason is that such actions are harder to monitor and would thus provide politicians with a smaller advantage in electoral competition.
Democratization increases educational spending
Stasvage (2005)10 finds that the 1990s shift to multiparty competition in African countries increased total educational spending as a percentage of GDP.
Ansell (2010)11 studies 100 countries over 40 years and finds that democratization increases both total educational spending as a share of GDP and as a share of the government budget.
Evidence that democracy improves teacher–student ratios
Naidu (2011)12 studies the effects of the 19th-century disenfranchisement of black citizens in the US South through poll taxes and literacy tests. He finds that this reversal of democracy “reduced the teacher-child ratio in black schools by 10–23%, with no significant effects on white teacher-child ratios.”
Democracy improved local politics in China and lead to more educated politicians
Martinez-Bravo et al. (2012)13
study the gradual introduction of local elections in China. In particular, they exploit the staggered timing of the introduction of village elections as a natural experiment. They “find that elections significantly increase public goods expenditure, the increase corresponds to demand and is paralleled by an increase in public goods provision and local taxes.” This is consistent with some of the results we’ve already discussed, including increased public education in villages with more children. Overall total public goods investment increased by 27 percent – this increase in public expenditures was funded by villagers and was accompanied by an increase in the local taxes paid by villagers.
The introduction of elections also reduced inequality. This was achieved partly through (a) land redistribution from elite-controlled enterprises to farming households; and (b) increased irrigation and hence improved agricultural productivity that is likely to “disproportionately benefit poorer households”.
Martinez-Bravo et al. (2012) also find that the introduction of elections was followed by the increased turnover of village chairmen increased. Moreover, the village chairmen were now less likely to be Communist Party members and, more importantly, were better educated.
Why we chose Polity IV as the main source for democracy measures
Measuring democratization is a tricky business. Can something as complex as democratization really be boiled down to a single, one-dimensional metric? Many would argue that it cannot.
Nonetheless, such a metric can be convenient and useful — it allows us to compare political regimes across time and space, and to quantify the causes and effects of political regime change. For example, such a metric can help us study the link between democratization and the end of mass famines.
In this entry, we have chosen to rely heavily on Polity IV and, in particular, what we’ve called the Democracy Score as our metric for democratization. One reason for choosing Polity IV is its long-run perspective.
Another is that Polity IV’s data sources provide a detailed explanation for each country’s political regime classification in each year. You can find these explanations in the PDF files here.
Yet another reason for choosing Polity IV is that it was praised by Munck and Verkuilen (2002),14 which is a a much-cited and thorough evaluation of commonly used democracy measures. These authors argue that there is usually a trade-off between the comprehensiveness of the empirical scope and the quality of the assessment in terms of conceptualization, measurement, and aggregation. However, Polity IV constitutes a rare “partial exception” to this trade-off.
Of course, we must keep in mind that the Polity IV Democracy Score does not and cannot capture everything that matters. For example, it fails to capture corruption or human rights adequately — and in any case, it probably makes better sense for us to measure these separately.
Comparison of different regime measures
The chart below is taken from Wilhelmsen (2006)15
It puts together three other measures of democratization that we haven’t yet discussed in this entry. These are the Polyarchy measure, the Polity measure, and the Freedom House measure. The Polyarchy and Polity measures go back to the early 19th century. The Freedom House measure shows the percentage of independent countries that are democratic. You can see that while these measures do not exactly coincide, they do largely move together.
Share of democracies of independent countries, 1816–2002 – Wilhelmsen
An overview of measures is presented at www.democracybarometer.org and at devEconData.
The Manifesto-Project by the Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung is an effort to understand political changes in democratic countries. This project undertakes a qualitative analysis of party manifestos for 50 countries since 1945.
Long Run
- Data: Many different measures – listed here. Most commonly used is the Polity2 measure which measures political systems on a spectrum between autocracy and democracy.16
Vanhanen’s Index of Democracy
- Data: Competition, Participation, and Index of Democracy
- Geographical coverage: Global – 187 countries
- Time span: Since 1810
- Available at: Online here.
- Criticized by Munck and Verkuilen (2002).17
Boix-Miller-Rosato dichotomous coding of democracy, 1800-2007
- Data: Dichotomous democracy measure, Dichotomous indicator of sovereignty/independence, Previous number of democratic breakdowns, Consecutive years of current regime type
- Geographical coverage: Global.
- Time span: 1800-2007
- Available at: The data is available at Michael K. Miller’s website.
- The accompanying paper is published here.18
- Relatively new.
Recent Decades
- Data: Measures of political and civil liberties
- Geographical coverage: Global
- Time span: Since 1973
- Available at: Online here
- Criticized by Munck and Verkuilen (see last side note)
Democracy-Dictatorship Data
- Data: Classification of political regimes as democracy and dictatorship; and classification of democracies as parliamentary, semi-presidential (mixed) and presidential.
- Geographical coverage: Global – 202 countries.
- Time span: From 1946 or year of independence to 2008.
- Available at: Online at José Antonio Cheibub’s website.
- The accompanying paper is Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland (2010).19
Papaioannou and Siourounis “Democratization and Growth”
- Data: Year when permanent democratization happened
- Geographical coverage: Global – by country
- Time span: 1960-2003
- Available at: Data and paper available for download at Papaioannou’s website.
- Data: Varieties of Democracy data
- Geographical coverage: Global – 206 countries.
- Time span: 1900 to present
- Available at: Online at www.v-dem.net.
Endnotes
We use data from the ‘Boix-Miller-Rosato dichotomous coding of democracy, 1800–2007’. In particular, we use Version 3.0 of their data, which is available at Michael K. Miller’s website.
Lutz, W., Crespo Cuaresma, J., & Abbasi‐Shavazi, M. J. (2010). Demography, education, and democracy: Global trends and the case of Iran. Population and Development Review, 36(2), 253-281.
Christopher J. Fariss (2014) – Respect for Human Rights has Improved Over Time: Modeling the Changing Standard of Accountability. In American Political Science Review / Volume 108 / Issue 02 / May 2014, pp 297-318 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003055414000070 (About DOI), Published online: 08 May 2014
Casey B. Mulligan; Ricard Gil; Xavier Sala-i-Martin (2004) – Do Democracies Have Different Public Policies than Nondemocracies? The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 18, No. 1. (2004), pp. 51-74
Online without a paywall here.
Gallego, F.A., (2010) – Historical origins of schooling: the role of democracy and political decentralization. The Review of Economics and Statistics 92 (2), 228–243.
Online here.The author employs an instrumental variable approach using historical settler mortality of Europeans and indigenous population density in 1500 as instruments for democracy.
Baum, M.A., Lake, D.A. (2001) – The invisible hand of democracy: political control and the provision of public services. Comparative Political Studies August 2001 vol. 34 no. 6 587-621
Online here.
Without paywall here.Daron Acemoglu, Suresh Naidu, Pascual Restrepo, James A. Robinson (2015) – Democracy, Redistribution, and Inequality.
Handbook of Income Distribution Volume 2, 2015, Pages 1885–1966 Handbook of Income Distribution Cover image Chapter 21
Online without a paywall here.
A summary of the results is presented by the authors here.Harding, Robin, Stasavage, David (2014) – What Democracy Does (and Doesn’t do) for Basic Services: School Fees, School Inputs, and African Elections. The Journal of Politics, Vol. 76, No. 1, January 2014, Pp. 229–245
Without paywall online here.Stasavage, D (2005) – Democracy and education spending in Africa. American Journal of Political Science, 49: 343–358. doi:10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00127.x
Online here.Ansell, B., (2010) – From the Ballot to the Blackboard: The Redistributive Political Economy of Education. The dissertation is freely available online here. Published by Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Naidu, S., (2011) – Suffrage, Schooling, and Sorting in the Post-Bellum US South. Unpublished. Available freely here.
Martinez-Bravo, Monica and Padró i Miquel, Gerard and Qian, Nancy, The Effects of Democratization on Public Goods and Redistribution: Evidence from China (May 2012). CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP8975. Available at SSRN here.
Munck and Verkuilen (2002) – Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy Evaluating Alternative Indices. In Comparative Political Studies, 35, 1, 5–34.
Lars Wilhelmsen – A Democratic Peace Revisited (Measuring Democracy in International Relations). Master Thesis – Department of Political Science, University of Oslo, April 2006. Online here. The Polyarchy data is available at the PRIO institute.
This measure is criticized by Gleditsch and Ward (1997) – Double Take: A Reexamination of Democracy and Autocracy in Modern Polities, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 41(3): 361-383.
Gerardo L. Munck and Jay Verkuilen (2002) – Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices. Comparative Political Studies 2002 35: 5. Online here.
Carles Boix, Michael Miller and Sebastian Rosato (2012) – A Complete Data Set of Political Regimes, 1800−2007 Comparative Political Studies published online 26 November 2012.
José Antonio Cheibub, Jennifer Gandhi, and James Raymond Vreeland (2010) – Democracy and Dictatorship Revisited. Public Choice, vol. 143, no. 2-1, pp. 67-101.
Reuse our work freely
You can use all of what you find here for your own research or writing. We license all charts under Creative Commons BY.
All of our charts can be embedded in any site.
Citation
Our articles and data visualizations rely on work from many different people and organizations. When citing this entry, please also cite the underlying data sources. This entry can be cited as:
Max Roser (2013) - "Democracy". Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/democracy' [Online Resource]BibTeX citation
@article{owiddemocracy, author = {Max Roser}, title = {Democracy}, journal = {Our World in Data}, year = {2013}, note = {https://ourworldindata.org/democracy} }What’s New in the Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number?
Screen Shot
System Requirements for Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number
- First, download the Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number
-
You can download its setup from given links:
Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number & PC Free Download
Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number& Key Download
Digital Photo Web Slide Show 2001 7 serial key or number
About Author
