Kings Edit 1.xx serial key or number

ARM

Supported processors include ARM720T, ARM920T, ARM1020T, StrongARM, and XScale. ARM-based processors are by far the most common choice of CE devices at the time of this writing.

MIPS

Supported processors include MIPS II/32 w/FP, MIPS II/32 w/o FP, MIPS16, MIPS IV/64 w/FP, and MIPS IV/64 w/o FP.

SHx

Supported processors include SH-3, SH-3 DSP, and SH-4.

x86

Supported processors include 486, 586, Geode, and Pentium I/II/III/IV.

Kernel, Processes, and Threads

Graphics, Windowing, and Event Subsystem (GWES)

PostMessage

Places message on queue of target thread, which is returned immediately to the process/thread

SendMessage

Places message on queue, but does not return until it is processed

SendThreadMessage

Sends messages directly to thread instead of to queue

R31

Negative/less than

R30

Zero

R29

Carry/borrow/extend

R28

Overflow

Table 4-1. Sample ARM conditional register values

Figure 4-1. MVT illustrating the registers

The Branch opcode tells the processor to jump to another part of the program or, more specifically, the memory, where it will continue its execution. The B opcode is not to be confused with the Branch with Link (BL) opcode, discussed next. The main difference is that the B opcode is simply a code execution redirector. The program jumps to the specified address and continues processing the instructions. The BL opcode also redirects to another piece of code, but it eventually jumps back to the original code and continues executing where it left off.

There are several variations of the B opcode, most of which make obvious sense. The following is a list of the three most common variants and what they mean. Note that this list relates to the condition table in the previous section. In addition, we have included the hex code that you will need to search for when altering a Branch operation. For where to find a full list, please visit the Section 4.5 at the end of the chapter.

Here are some examples:

When a program is executing, there are situations in which the program must branch out and process a related piece of information before it can continue with the main program. This is made possible with a Branch with Link opcode. Unlike its relative, the B opcode, BL always returns to the code it was originally executing. To facilitate this, register 14 is used to hold the original address from which the BL was called.

The BL opcode has several variants to its base instruction, just like the B opcode. The following is a list of the same three variants and what they mean, which will be followed by examples. It is important to note that the examples show function calls instead of address locations. However, if you look at the actual code, you will find normal addresses, just like with the B opcode. The function naming convention is based on the fact that many BL calls are made to defined functions that return a value or perform a service. As you investigate CE reversing, you will become very intimate with the BL opcode. Note that the MVT debugger will not jump to the BL address when doing a line-by-line execution. It instead performs the function and continues to the next line. If you want to watch the code specified by the BL operation, specify a breakpoint at the memory address to which it branches. This concept is discussed later in this chapter.

Here are some examples:

A program is constantly moving data around. In order to facilitate this function, registers are updated with values from other registers and with hardcoded integers. These values are used by other operations to make decisions or perform calculations. This is the purpose of the Move opcode.

MOV does just what its name implies. In addition to basic moves, this opcode has the same conditional variants as the B and BL opcodes. By this point, you have a general understanding of what the EQ/NE/etc. means to an instruction set, so we will not discuss it further. Note, however, that almost every opcode includes some form of a conditional variant.

It’s important to understand how the MOV instruction works. This command can move the value of one register into another, or it can move a hardcoded value into a register. However, notice the item receiving the data is always a register. The following are several examples of the MOV command, what they do, and their hex equivalents.

Programs constantly need to compare two pieces of information. The results of the comparison are used in many ways: from the validation of a serial number, to continuation of a counting loop, etc. The assembler instruction set that is responsible for this process is Compare, or CMP.

The CMP operation can be used to compare the values in two registers with each other or to compare a register value and a hardcoded value. The results of the comparison do not output any data, but they do change the status of the conditional Zero flag. If the two values are equal, the Zero flag is set to 0; if the values are not equal, the flag is set to 1. This Zero value is then used by a subsequent opcode to control what is executed, or how.

The CMP operation is used in almost every serial number validation. The validation is accomplished in two ways: first, the actual comparison of the entered serial number with a hardcoded serial number; and second, after the validation check, when the program is deciding what piece of code is to be executed next. Typically, there will be a BEQ (Branch if Equal) or BNE (Branch if Not Equal) operation that uses the status of the Zero flag to either send a “Wrong Serial Number” message to the screen or accept the entered serial and allow access to the protected program. This use of the CMP operation is discussed further later in this chapter.

Another use of CMP is in a loop function. Loop functions assist in counting, string comparisons, file loads, and more. Being able to recognize a loop in a sequence of assembler programming is an important part of successful reverse engineering. The following is an example of how a loop looks when debugging a program.

This is a simple loop included in an encryption scheme. In memory address 2A04, you can see a Branch occurs if the Zero flag is set. This flag is set, or unset, by memory address 2A00, which compares the values between R3 and R2. If they match, the code jumps back to memory address 2AEC.

The following are examples of two CMP opcodes and their corresponding hex values.

While the registers are able to store small amounts of information, the processor must access the space allotted to it in the RAM in order to store larger chunks of information. This information includes screen titles, serial numbers, colors, settings, and more. In fact, almost everything that you see when you use a program has at one time resided in memory. The LDR and STR opcodes are used to write and read this information to and from memory.

While related, these two commands perform opposite actions. The Load (LDR) instruction loads data from memory into a register, and the Store (STR) instruction stores the data from the registry into memory for later usage. However, there is more to these instructions than the simple transfer of data. In addition to defining where the data is moved, the LDR/STR commands have variations that tell the processor how much data is to be moved. The following is a list of these variants and what they mean:

LDR/STR commands are different from the other previously discussed instructions in that they almost always include three pieces of information, due to the way the load and store instructions work. Since only a few bytes of data are moved, at most, the program must keep track of where it was last writing to or reading from. It must then append to or read from where it left off at the last read/write. You’ll often find LDR/STR commands in a loop where they read in or write out large amounts of data, one byte at a time.

The LDR/STR instructions are also different from other instructions in that they typically have three variables controlling where and what data is manipulated. The first variable is the data that is actually being transferred. The second and third variables determine where the data is written, and if it is manipulated before it is permanently stored or loaded. The following lists examples of how these instruction sets are used.

Notice the two new items that affect how the opcodes perform. The first is the “!” character, used to tell the instruction to write the new information back into one of the registers. The second is the use of the LSL command, which is discussed next.

Also related to these instructions are the LDM/STM instructions. These are also used to store or load register values; however, they do it on a larger scale. Instead of just moving one value, like LDR/STR, the LDM/STM instructions store or load all the register values. They are most commonly used when a BL occurs. When this happens, the program must be able to keep track of the original register values, which will be overwritten with values used by the BL code. So, they are stored into memory; then, when the branch code is completely executed, the original register values are loaded back into the registers from memory.

The above information should be easy to absorb for those of you who have previous experience with assembler or who are innately good programmers. However, if you are a newcomer, do not be discouraged, as mastering assembler typically takes years of dedicated study.

The final instruction sets we examine are the shifting operations. These are somewhat complicated, but they are a fundamental part of understanding assembler. They are used to manipulate data held by a register at the binary level. In short, they shift the bit values left or right (depending on the opcode), which changes the value held by the register. The following tables illustrate how this works with the two most common shifting instruction sets, Logical Shift Left, or LSL (Table 4-2), and Logical Shift Right, or LSR (Table 4-3). Because of space limitations, we will only be performing shifts on bits 0-7 of a 32-bit value. The missing bit values will be represented by ellipses (...).

While these are the most common shift instructions, there are three others that you may see. They are Arithmetic Shift Left (ASL), Arithmetic Shift Right (ASR), and Rotate Right Extended (ROR). All of these shift operations perform the same basic function as LSL/LSR, with some variations. For example, the ASL/ASR shifts fill in the empty bit places with the bit value of register 31, which preserves the sign bit of the value being held in the register. The ROR shift, on the other hand, carries the bit value around from bit 0 to bit 31.

The previous pages have given you a brief look at assembler programming on ARM processors. You will need this information later in this chapter when we practice some of our RCE skills on a test program—it will be valuable as you attempt to debug software, find exploits, and dissect hostile code.

1. Open Microsoft eMbedded Visual C++.

2. Click File → New.

3. Select the Projects tab.

4. In the “Project Name:” field, type “test”, as illustrated in Figure 4-2. Select WCE Application on the left.

Figure 4-2. WCE application creation window

Tip

By default, all compiled executables will be created in the C:\Program Files\Microsoft eMbedded Tools\Common\EVC\MyProjects\ directory.

1. Click OK.

2. Ensure “A typical `Hello World!’ Application” is selected, and click Finish.

3. Click OK.

Tip

We’re running the programs on a PDA synchronized with our computer, but the beauty of Microsoft’s eMbedded Visual Tools is you don’t need a real device. The free MVT has an emulator for virtual testing .

1. Ensure the device is connected via ActiveSync.

2. Click Build →test.exe.

3. Click Yes/OK through the warnings.

4. Locate the newly created executable in your C:\Program Files\Microsoft eMbedded Tools\Common\EVC\MyProjects\ directory, or whatever directory you selected during the wizard, and copy it to your device.

Figure 4-3. test.exe screen on the Windows CE device

In about 80% of all software, there is a common flaw that leads to the eventual cracking of the software: predictable code. For example, if you go through the registration process, you will almost always find a message that tells you the wrong serial number was entered. While this is a nice gesture for the honest person who made a mistake, it is a telltale sign that the program is an easy crack.

The problem arises simply because there are a limited number of alert boxes that appear in a program. A cracker has only to open the program in IDA Pro and search the strings for any calls made to MessageBoxW—the name of the function responsible for sending a message to the computer screen.

Once the cracker finds this call, she can use the reference list included with IDA Pro to backtrack through the program until she finds the point where the serial number is verified. In other words, using a message box to warn about an invalid serial gives the cracker the necessary starting point to look for a weakness. Without it, a beginner cracker could spend hours slowly stepping through the program, testing and probing.

Other common calls are Load String (for loading serial number values into a variable), Registry checks (for checking to see if the program is registered or not), and System Time checks (for checking for trial period deadlines). To find these, a cracker only has to use the Names window, which lists all the functions and system calls used in the program. Figure 4-4 is taken from IDA Pro, with our test.exe program loaded into it. The highlighted function may be a good place to start when looking for a way to alter the displayed message.

When working with strings such as usernames, serials, or other text entries, it is important to monitor the length. The length of the string is important for two reasons. One, a program that expects a string may generate an error if it receives a variable with no value. For example, if a program is trying to divide two numbers and the denominator is blank, the calculation will fail. To avoid problems like this, a program will include checks to ensure that a value is indeed entered.

The second main use of string length checks is when setting aside memory for a variable. For example, our “Hello, World!” application must set aside enough memory for a 12-character variable. The program checks to see how much space is required using wcslen, as the following code illustrates:

While testing string length is undeniably important, it is also an easy function to find and abuse. Because these types of functions are required when verifying serial numbers, a cracker has only to look in the Names window of the application to start the reversing process. In fact, crackers sometimes target this check and reset the required serial number length to zero, thus bypassing a program’s security.

Another popular method of finding serial number checks is through the use of the comparison (CMP) instruction. This type of function is used to compare two values to see if they are equal, and it can flip the Zero flag to true or false accordingly. Again, this is a required function for program execution; however, it comes with a serious risk.

Using strcmp or CMP as the sole method of validation in a registration process is not recommended. This particular function is one of the most abused and exploited functions in assembler. In fact, the use of this one little command can sometimes neuter a program that uses complex serial verification routines with encryption, name checks, and more.

For example, some programs do not actually store their serial numbers in the program file. Instead, an algorithm is used to create a valid serial number on the fly, based on owner names, hardware settings, the date/time, and more. In other words, thousands of lines of code are dedicated to creating a valid registration key. This key is used in the validation process to check any serial number that is entered to unlock a program. However, at the very end of the verification routine, most programs simply perform a simple comparison between the entered serial number and the one generated by the complex algorithm. The results of this check are placed into one of the registers, which are used to determine how the program flows. Typically, the next line includes some conditional branch call that either accepts the entered serial number or rejects it. Let’s take a look at the following example, in which strcmp is used to verify a registration value:

Following this function, there would be a branch link to another section of code that would update the serial status and probably alert the user to a success or failure of the registration attempt. This would be done using the status flags, updated when the CMP opcode was executed. The following is an example:

Therefore, if a cracker wanted to patch this program, he would only need to ensure that the CMP opcode always worked to his advantage. To do this, he would update the following opcode:

Since R2 will always equal R2, the CMP updates the status flags with an Equal status. This is used in the BNE/BEQ branches, which react with a positive serial check. To do this, a cracker would have to update the hex values as follows:

In other words, thanks to strcmp and the change of one hex character, the protection of this program is nullified.

When attacking a program, there are some situations that require a cracker to overwrite existing code with something known as a nonoperation (NOP). A nonoperation simply tells the processor to move on to the next command. When a series of NOP commands are used in sequence, the processor virtually slides through the code until it hits a command it can perform. This technique is popular in both the hacking and cracking community, but for different reasons.

A hacker typically uses NOP slides to facilitate the execution of inserted code through a buffer overflow. A buffer overflow (discussed in Chapter 5) is a method of overflowing a variable’s intended memory allocation with data. This allows a hacker to write her own code right into the memory, which can be used to create a backdoor, elevate permissions, and more. However, a hacker does not always know where her code ends up in the target computer’s memory, so she typically pads her exploit code with NOP commands. This allows a hacker to guess where in the memory to point the execution code. Upon hitting the NOP commands, the processor just slides into the exploit code and executes it.

A cracker, on the other hand, does not use NOP slides to execute code. Instead, he uses NOP commands to overwrite code he does not want executed. For example, many programs include a jump or branch in the assembler code that instructs the processor to validate a serial number. If a cracker can locate this jump in the program, he can overwrite it with a NOP command. This ensures that the program remains the same byte size and bypasses the registration check. Typically, this method will also be used with a slight alteration on a compare or equivalence function, to ensure proper continued code execution.

Traditionally, the NOP command is as simple as typing 0x90 over the hex that needs to be nullified. However, this works only on an x86 processor, not on ARM. If you attempt to use 0x90s on ARM, you end up inserting UMULLSS, which is the command to perform an unsigned multiply long if the LS condition flags are set, followed by an update of the status flags depending on the result of the calculation. Obviously, this is about as far from a NOP as you can get.

Ironically, the ARM processor has no true NOP command. Instead, a cracker would need to use a series of commands that essentially perform no operation. This is accomplished by simply moving a value from a register back into itself, as follows:

This method of cracking is common because it is one of the easiest to implement. For example, if a cracker wanted to bypass a “sleep” function in a shareware program, she could easily search for and find something similar to the following code.

Using a hex editor, a cracker would only have to make the following changes to the code to cause the “sleep” function to be ignored:

Note the missing command. When you overwrite this command, the revised program will not display, for example, a nag screen that temporarily restricts access. Instead, the user will be taken straight into the program.

To our knowledge, at the time of this writing there are no hex editors that work directly on Windows Mobile platforms. However, you can edit the application on the desktop (Figure 4-5) using methods described in previous chapters.

Disassembling a CE Program

The first thing you need to do is load the test.exe file into IDA Pro. You need to have a local copy of the file on your computer. Step through the following instructions to get the test.exe file disassembled.

At this point, you should have the following chunk of code listed at the top of the disassembler window:

If you look at this code, you can see that LoadStringW is considered a subroutine. A subroutine is a mini-program that performs some action for the main program. In this case, it is loading a string. However, you will want to pay attention to the references that use this subroutine. These will be listed at the top of the routine under the CODE XREF, which stands for cross-reference. In our case, there are two addresses in this program that call this subroutine; they are sub_110E8+28 and sub_110E8+40. While these addresses may appear a bit cryptic, they are easy to understand. In short, the cross-reference sub_110E8+28 tells you that this LoadStringW subroutine was called by another subroutine that is located at address 110E8 in the program. The actual call to LoadStringW was made at the base 110E8 address plus 28 (hex) bytes of memory into the routine.

While it is possible to scroll up to this memory location, IDA makes it easy by allowing us to click on the reference. Here’s the secret: right-click on the “...” and select the “Jump to cross reference” option. Select the third option on the list, which should be 1135C. Without this shortcut, you would have to go to each XREF and check to see where in the display process the code is.

Once at address 1135C, you can see that it looks very promising. Within a short chunk of code, you have several function calls that seem to be part of writing a message to a screen (i.e., BeginPaint, GetClientRect, LoadStringW, wcslen, DrawTextW). Now we will use the lessons we’ve learned to see what we can do.

As we learned, wcslen is a common point of weakness. We are going to use this knowledge to change the size of our message. Let’s take a closer look at this part of the code, assuming that the message is loaded into memory.

Now that we have broken down this part of the code (which you will be able to do with practice), how can we change the length of the string that is drawn to the screen? Since we know that this value was moved into R2, we can assume that R2 is used by the DrawTextW routine to define the length. In other words, if we can control the value in R2, we can control the message on the screen.

To do this, we only need to change the assembler at address 1136C. Since R2 gets its value from R0, we can simply replace the R0 variable with a hardcoded value of our own. Now that we know this, let us edit the program using our hex editor.

Once you get the hex editor open, you will quickly see that the address in IDA does not match the address in the hex editor. However, IDA does provide the address in another part of the screen, as illustrated in Figure 4-7. The status bar located at the bottom left corner of the IDA window gives the actual memory location you need to edit.

Using the opcodes discussed previously in this chapter, you recreate the hex code you want to use in place of the existing code. The following is the original hex code and the code you will want to replace it with.

Here is the original:

And here it is, updated:

Note the change from E1 to E3; it differentiates between a MOV of a register value and a MOV of a hardcoded value.

What did this change accomplish? If you download the newest test.exe file to your PDA, you will see that it now has a message of just “H”. In other words, we caused the program to only load the first character of the message it had stored in memory. Now, imagine what we could do if we increased the size of the message to something greater than the message in memory. Using this type of trick, a cracker could perform all kinds of manipulation. However, these types of tricks often take more than just a disassembler, which is where MVT comes in handy.

Microsoft’s eMbedded Visual Tools

1. Open Microsoft eMbedded Visual C++.

2. Select File → Open.

3. Change “Files of type:” to “Executable Files” (.exe, .dll, .ocx).

4. Select the local copy of test.exe.

5. After brief delay, select Project → Settings from the top menu.

6. Click the Debug tab.

7. In the “Download directory:” text box, type “\” (or point the directory to the folder you have selected on the CE device).

8. Click OK, and then hit F11.

9. You will see a Connecting screen (Figure 4-8) followed by a warning screen (Figure 4-9). Select Yes on the CPU Mismatch Warning dialog window.

Figure 4-8. Microsoft eMbedded Visual C++ connecting screen

Figure 4-9. Microsoft eMbedded Visual C++ CPU warning

Figure 4-10. Microsoft eMbedded Visual C++ platform warning

1. The file will download and some file verification will occur.

2. Click OK on the debugging information warning screen (Figure 4-11).