Eye Candy Impact 5.1 serial key or number

You’ve been a consumer with purchasing power for much longer than you probably realize—since the first time you were asked which cereal or toy you wanted. Over the years, you’ve developed rules of thumb or mental shortcuts providing a systematic way to choose among alternatives, even if you aren’t aware of it. Other consumers follow a similar process, but different people, no matter how similar they are, make different purchasing decisions. You might be very interested in purchasing a Smart Car, but your best friend might want to buy a Ford F-150 truck. What factors influenced your decision and what factors influenced your friend’s decision? As we mentioned earlier in the chapter, consumer behavior is influenced by many things, including environmental and marketing factors, the situation, personal and psychological factors, family, and culture. Businesses try to figure out trends so they can reach the people most likely to buy their products in the most cost-effective way possible. Businesses often try to influence a consumer’s behavior with things they can control such as the layout of a store, music, grouping and availability of products, pricing, and advertising. While some influences may be temporary and others are long lasting, different factors can affect how buyers behave—whether they influence you to make a purchase, buy additional products, or buy nothing at all. Let’s now look at some of the influences on consumer behavior in more detail.

Situational Factors

Have you ever been in a department story and couldn’t find your way out? No, you aren’t necessarily directionally challenged. Marketing professionals take physical factors such as a store’s design and layout into account when they are designing their facilities. Presumably, the longer you wander around a facility, the more you will spend. Grocery stores frequently place bread and milk products on the opposite ends of the stores because people often need both types of products. To buy both, they have to walk around an entire store, which of course, is loaded with other items they might see and purchase.

Store locations also influence behavior. Starbucks has done a good job in terms of locating its stores. It has the process down to a science; you can scarcely drive a few miles down the road without passing a Starbucks. You can also buy cups of Starbucks coffee at many grocery stores and in airports—virtually any place where there is foot traffic.

Physical factors that firms can control, such as the layout of a store, music played at stores, the lighting, temperature, and even the smells you experience are called atmospherics. Perhaps you’ve visited the office of an apartment complex and noticed how great it looked and even smelled. It’s no coincidence. The managers of the complex were trying to get you to stay for a while and have a look at their facilities. Research shows that “strategic fragrancing” results in customers staying in stores longer, buying more, and leaving with better impressions of the quality of stores’ services and products. Mirrors near hotel elevators are another example. Hotel operators have found that when people are busy looking at themselves in the mirrors, they don’t feel like they are waiting as long for their elevators (Moore, 2008).

Not all physical factors are under a company’s control, however. Take weather, for example. Rainy weather can be a boon to some companies, like umbrella makers such as Totes, but a problem for others. Beach resorts, outdoor concert venues, and golf courses suffer when it is raining heavily. Businesses such as automobile dealers also have fewer customers. Who wants to shop for a car in the rain?

Firms often attempt to deal with adverse physical factors such as bad weather by offering specials during unattractive times. For example, many resorts offer consumers discounts to travel to beach locations during hurricane season. Having an online presence is another way to cope with weather-related problems. What could be more comfortable than shopping at home? If it’s raining too hard to drive to the GAP, REI, or Abercrombie & Fitch, you can buy products from these companies and many others online. You can shop online for cars, too, and many restaurants take orders online and deliver.

Crowding is another situational factor. Have you ever left a store and not purchased anything because it was just too crowded? Some studies have shown that consumers feel better about retailers who attempt to prevent overcrowding in their stores. However, other studies have shown that to a certain extent, crowding can have a positive impact on a person’s buying experience. The phenomenon is often referred to as “herd behavior” (Gaumer & Leif, 2005).

If people are lined up to buy something, you want to know why. Should you get in line to buy it too? Herd behavior helped drive up the price of houses in the mid-2000s before the prices for them rapidly fell. Unfortunately, herd behavior has also led to the deaths of people. In 2008, a store employee was trampled to death by an early morning crowd rushing into a Walmart to snap up holiday bargains.

Social Situation

The social situation you’re in can significantly affect your purchase behavior. Perhaps you have seen Girl Scouts selling cookies outside grocery stores and other retail establishments and purchased nothing from them, but what if your neighbor’s daughter is selling the cookies? Are you going to turn her down or be a friendly neighbor and buy a box (or two)?

Video Clip : Thin Mints, Anyone?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJHN4eutKjY

Are you going to turn down cookies from this cute Girl Scout? What if she’s your neighbor’s daughter? Pass the milk, please!

Companies like Pampered Chef that sell their products at parties understand that the social situation makes a difference. When you’re at a friend’s Pampered Chef party, you don’t want to look cheap or disappoint your friend by not buying anything. Certain social situations can also make you less willing to buy products. You might spend quite a bit of money each month eating at fast-food restaurants like McDonald’s and Subway. Where do you take someone for your first date? Some people might take a first date to Subway, but other people would perhaps choose a restaurant that’s more upscale. Likewise, if you have turned down a drink or dessert on a date because you were worried about what the person you were with might have thought, your consumption was affected by your social situation (Matilla & Wirtz, 2008).

Time

The time of day, time of year, and how much time consumers feel like they have to shop affect what they buy. Researchers have even discovered whether someone is a “morning person” or “evening person” affects shopping patterns. Have you ever gone to the grocery store when you are hungry or after pay day when you have cash in your pocket? When you are hungry or have cash, you may purchase more than you would at other times. Seven- Eleven Japan is a company that’s extremely in tune to time and how it affects buyers. The company’s point-of-sale systems at its checkout counters monitor what is selling well and when, and stores are restocked with those items immediately—sometimes via motorcycle deliveries that zip in and out of traffic along Japan’s crowded streets. The goal is to get the products on the shelves when and where consumers want them. Seven-Eleven Japan also knows that, like Americans, its customers are “time starved.” Shoppers can pay their utility bills, local taxes, and insurance or pension premiums at Seven-Eleven Japan stores, and even make photocopies (Bird, 2002).

Companies worldwide are aware of people’s lack of time and are finding ways to accommodate them. Some doctors’ offices offer drive-through shots for patients who are in a hurry and for elderly patients who find it difficult to get out of their cars. Tickets.com allows companies to sell tickets by sending them to customers’ mobile phones when they call in. The phones’ displays are then read by barcode scanners when the ticket purchasers arrive at the events they’re attending. Likewise, if you need customer service from Amazon.com, there’s no need to wait on the telephone. If you have an account with Amazon, you just click a button on the company’s Web site and an Amazon representative calls you immediately.

Reason for the Purchase

The reason you are shopping also affects the amount of time you will spend shopping. Are you making an emergency purchase? What if you need something for an important dinner or a project and only have an hour to get everything? Are you shopping for a gift or for a special occasion? Are you buying something to complete a task/ project and need it quickly? In recent years, emergency clinics have sprung up in strip malls all over the country. Convenience is one reason. The other is sheer necessity. If you cut yourself and you are bleeding badly, you’re probably not going to shop around much to find the best clinic. You will go to the one that’s closest to you. The same thing may happen if you need something immediately.

Purchasing a gift might not be an emergency situation, but you might not want to spend much time shopping for it either. Gift certificates have been popular for years. You can purchase gift cards for numerous merchants at your local grocery store or online. By contrast, suppose you need to buy an engagement ring. Sure, you could buy one online in a jiffy, but you probably wouldn’t do that. What if the diamond was fake? What if your significant other turned you down and you had to return the ring? How hard would it be to get back online and return the ring? (Hornik & Miniero, 2009)

Mood

Have you ever felt like going on a shopping spree? At other times wild horses couldn’t drag you to a mall. People’s moods temporarily affect their spending patterns. Some people enjoy shopping. It’s entertaining for them. At the extreme are compulsive spenders who get a temporary “high” from spending.

A sour mood can spoil a consumer’s desire to shop. The crash of the U.S. stock market in 2008 left many people feeling poorer, leading to a dramatic downturn in consumer spending. Penny pinching came into vogue, and conspicuous spending was out. Costco and Walmart experienced heightened sales of their low-cost Kirkland Signature and Great Value brands as consumers scrimped1. Saks Fifth Avenue wasn’t so lucky. Its annual release of spring fashions usually leads to a feeding frenzy among shoppers, but spring 2009 was different. “We’ve definitely seen a drop-off of this idea of shopping for entertainment,” says Kimberly Grabel, Saks Fifth Avenue’s senior vice president of marketing (Rosenbloom, 2009). To get buyers in the shopping mood, companies resorted to different measures. The upscale retailer Neiman Marcus began introducing more mid-priced brands. By studying customer’s loyalty cards, the French hypermarket Carrefour hoped to find ways to get its customers to purchase nonfood items that have higher profit margins.

The glum mood wasn’t bad for all businesses though. Discounters like Half-Priced books saw their sales surge. So did seed sellers as people began planting their own gardens. Finally, what about those products (Aqua Globes, Snuggies, and Ped Eggs) you see being hawked on television? Their sales were the best ever. Apparently, consumers too broke to go on vacation or shop at Saks were instead watching television and treating themselves to the products (Ward, 2009).

Personal Factors

Personality and Self-Concept

Personality describes a person’s disposition, helps show why people are different, and encompasses a person’s unique traits. The “Big Five” personality traits that psychologists discuss frequently include openness or how open you are to new experiences, conscientiousness or how diligent you are, extraversion or how outgoing or shy you are, agreeableness or how easy you are to get along with, and neuroticism or how prone you are to negative mental states.

Do personality traits predict people’s purchasing behavior? Can companies successfully target certain products to people based on their personalities? How do you find out what personalities consumers have? Are extraverts wild spenders and introverts penny pinchers?

The link between people’s personalities and their buying behavior is somewhat unclear. Some research studies have shown that “sensation seekers,” or people who exhibit extremely high levels of openness, are more likely to respond well to advertising that’s violent and graphic. The problem for firms is figuring out “who’s who” in terms of their personalities.

Marketers have had better luck linking people’s self-concepts to their buying behavior. Your self-concept is how you see yourself—be it positive or negative. Your ideal self is how you would like to see yourself—whether it’s prettier, more popular, more eco-conscious, or more “goth,” and others’ self-concept, or how you think others see you, also influences your purchase behavior. Marketing researchers believe people buy products to enhance how they feel about themselves—to get themselves closer to their ideal selves.

The slogan “Be All That You Can Be,” which for years was used by the U.S. Army to recruit soldiers, is an attempt to appeal to the self-concept. Presumably, by joining the U.S. Army, you will become a better version of yourself, which will, in turn, improve your life. Many beauty products and cosmetic procedures are advertised in a way that’s supposed to appeal to the ideal self people seek. All of us want products that improve our lives.

Gender, Age, and Stage of Life

While demographic variables such as income, education, and marital status are important, we will look at gender, age, and stage of life and how they influence purchase decisions. Men and women need and buy different products (Ward & Thuhang, 2007). They also shop differently and in general, have different attitudes about shopping. You know the old stereotypes. Men see what they want and buy it, but women “try on everything and shop ‘til they drop.” There’s some truth to the stereotypes. That’s why you see so many advertisements directed at one sex or the other—beer commercials that air on ESPN and commercials for household products that air on Lifetime. Women influence fully two-thirds of all household product purchases, whereas men buy about three-quarters of all alcoholic beverages (Schmitt, 2008). The shopping differences between men and women seem to be changing, though. Younger, well-educated men are less likely to believe grocery shopping is a woman’s job and would be more inclined to bargain shop and use coupons if the coupons were properly targeted at them (Hill & Harmon, 2007).

One survey found that approximately 45 percent of married men actually like shopping and consider it relaxing. One study by Resource Interactive, a technology research firm, found that when shopping online, men prefer sites with lots of pictures of products and women prefer to see products online in lifestyle context—say, a lamp in a living room. Women are also twice as likely as men to use viewing tools such as the zoom and rotate buttons and links that allow them to change the color of products.

Video Clip: What Women Want versus What Men Want

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yIutgtzwhAc

Check out this Heineken commercial, which highlights the differences between “what women want” and “what men want” when it comes to products.

Figure 5.1: Marketing to men

Marketing to men is big business. Some advertising agencies specialize in advertisements designed specifically to appeal to male consumers.

(Kimberly – Grandpa Reading – CC BY-NC 2.0.)

Many businesses today are taking greater pains to figure out “what men want.” Products such as face toners and body washes for men such as the Axe brand and hair salons such as the Men’s Zone and Weldon Barber are a relatively new phenomenon. Some advertising agencies specialize in advertising directed at men. There are also many products such as kayaks and mountain bikes targeted toward women that weren’t in the past. You have probably noticed that the things you buy have changed as you age. Think about what you wanted and how you spent five dollars when you were a child, a teenager, and an adult. When you were a child, the last thing you probably wanted as a gift was clothing. As you became a teen, however, cool clothes probably became a bigger priority. Don’t look now, but depending on the stage of life you’re currently in, diapers and wrinkle cream might be just around the corner.

If you’re single and working after graduation, you probably spend your money differently than a newly married couple. How do you think spending patterns change when someone has a young child or a teenager or a child in college? Diapers and day care, orthodontia, tuition, electronics—regardless of the age, children affect the spending patterns of families. Once children graduate from college and parents are empty nesters, spending patterns change again.

Empty nesters and baby boomers are a huge market that companies are trying to tap. Ford and other car companies have created “aging suits” for young employees to wear when they’re designing automobiles2. The suit simulates the restricted mobility and vision people experience as they get older. Car designers can then figure out how to configure the automobiles to better meet the needs of these consumers

Video Clip : Car Makers Design Special Aging Suit

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hcw17EsE7A

The “aging suit” has elastic bindings that hamper a car designer’s movement and goggles that simulate deteriorating eyesight. The suit gives the designer an idea what kinds of car-related challenges older consumers face.

Lisa Rudes Sandel, the founder of Not Your Daughter’s Jeans (NYDJ), created a multimillion-dollar business by designing jeans for baby boomers with womanly bodies. Since its launch seven years ago, NYDJ has become the largest domestic manufacturer of women’s jeans under $100. “The truth is,” Rudes Sandel says, “I’ve never forgotten that woman I’ve been aiming for since day one.” Rudes Sandel “speaks to” every one of her customers via a note tucked into each pair of jean that reads, “NYDJ (Not Your Daughter’s Jeans) cannot be held responsible for any positive consequence that may arise due to your fabulous appearance when wearing the Tummy Tuck jeans. You can thank me later” (Saffian, 2009).

Figure 5.2: Age and Stage of Life

You’re only as old as you feel—and the things you buy.
“Viola Ng – – CC BY-ND 2.0.”

Your chronological age, or actual age in years, is one thing. Your cognitive age, or how old you perceive yourself to be, is another. A person’s cognitive age affects his or her activities and sparks interests consistent with his or her perceived age (Barak & Gould, 1985). Cognitive age is a significant predictor of consumer behaviors, including people’s dining out, watching television, going to bars and dance clubs, playing computer games, and shopping (Barak & Gould, 1985). Companies have found that many consumers feel younger than their chronological age and don’t take kindly to products that feature “old folks” because they can’t identify with them.

Lifestyle

If you have ever watched the television show Wife Swap, you can see that despite people’s similarities (e.g., being middle-class Americans who are married with children), their lifestyles can differ radically. To better understand and connect with consumers, companies interview or ask people to complete questionnaires about their lifestyles or their activities, interests, and opinions (often referred to as AIO statements). Consumers are not only asked about products they like, where they live, and what their gender is but also about what they do—that is, how they spend their time and what their priorities, values, opinions, and general outlooks on the world are. Where do they go other than work? Who do they like to talk to? What do they talk about? Researchers hired by Procter & Gamble have gone so far as to follow women around for weeks as they shop, run errands, and socialize with one another (Berner, 2006). Other companies have paid people to keep a daily journal of their activities and routines. A number of research organizations examine lifestyle and psychographic characteristics of consumers. Psychographics combines the lifestyle traits of consumers and their personality styles with an analysis of their attitudes, activities, and values to determine groups of consumers with similar characteristics. One of the most widely used systems to classify people based on psychographics is the VALS (Values, Attitudes, and Lifestyles) framework. Using VALS to combine psychographics with demographic information such as marital status, education level, and income provide a better understanding of consumers.

Psychological Factors

Motivation

Motivation is the inward drive we have to get what we need. In the mid-1900s, Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, developed the hierarchy of needs shown in Figure 5.3 “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs”.

Figure 5.3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow theorized that people have to fulfill their basic needs—food, water, and sleep—before they can begin fulfilling higher-level needs. Have you ever gone shopping when you were tired or hungry? Even if you were shopping for something that would make you the envy of your friends (maybe a new car) you probably wanted to sleep or eat even more. (Forget the car. Just give me a nap and a candy bar.) The need for food is recurring. Other needs, such as shelter, clothing, and safety, tend to be enduring. Still other needs arise at different points in time in a person’s life. For example, during grade school and high school, your social needs probably rose to the forefront. You wanted to have friends and get a date. Perhaps this prompted you to buy certain types of clothing or electronic devices. After high school, you began thinking about how people would view you in your “station” in life, so you decided to pay for college and get a professional degree, thereby fulfilling your need for esteem. If you’re lucky, at some point you will realize Maslow’s state of self-actualization. You will believe you have become the person in life that you feel you were meant to be.

Following the economic crisis that began in 2008, the sales of new automobiles dropped sharply virtually everywhere around the world—except the sales of Hyundai vehicles. Hyundai understood that people needed to feel secure and safe and ran an ad campaign that assured car buyers they could return their vehicles if they couldn’t make the payments on them without damaging their credit. Seeing Hyundai’s success, other car-makers began offering similar programs.

Likewise, banks began offering “worry-free” mortgages to ease the minds of would-be home-buyers. For a fee of about $500, First Mortgage Corp., a Texas-based bank, offered to make a homeowner’s mortgage payment for six months if he or she got laid off (Jares, 2010). While achieving self-actualization may be a goal for many individuals in the United States, consumers in Eastern cultures may focus more on belongingness and group needs. Marketers look at cultural differences in addition to individual needs. The importance of groups affects advertising (using groups versus individuals) and product decisions.

Perception

Perception is how you interpret the world around you and make sense of it in your brain. You do so via stimuli that affect your different senses—sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. How you combine these senses also makes a difference. For example, in one study, consumers were blindfolded and asked to drink a new brand of clear beer. Most of them said the product tasted like regular beer. However, when the blindfolds came off and they drank the beer, many of them described it as “watery” tasting (Ries, 2009).

Consumers are bombarded with messages on television, radio, magazines, the Internet, and even bathroom walls. The average consumer is exposed to about three thousand advertisements per day (Lasn, 1999). Consumers are surfing the Internet, watching television, and checking their cell phones for text messages simultaneously. Some, but not all, information makes it into our brains. Selecting information we see or hear (e.g., television shows or magazines) is called selective exposure.

Have you ever read or thought about something and then started noticing ads and information about it popping up everywhere? Many people are more perceptive to advertisements for products they need. Selective attention is the process of filtering out information based on how relevant it is to you. It’s been described as a “suit of armor” that helps you filter out information you don’t need. At other times, people forget information, even if it’s quite relevant to them, which is called selective retention. Often the information contradicts the person’s belief. A longtime chain smoker who forgets much of the information communicated during an anti-smoking commercial is an example. To be sure their advertising messages get through to you and you remember them, companies use repetition. How tired of iPhone commercials were you before they tapered off? How often do you see the same commercial aired during a single television show?

Another potential problem that advertisers (or your friends) may experience is selective distortion or misinterpretation of the intended message. Promotions for weight loss products show models that look slim and trim after using their products, and consumers may believe they will look like the model if they use the product. They misinterpret other factors such as how the model looked before or how long it will take to achieve the results. Similarly, have you ever told someone a story about a friend and that person told another person who told someone else? By the time the story gets back to you, it is completely different. The same thing can happen with many types of messages.

Video Clip :A Parody of an iPhone Commercial

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vle73VqtHw

Check out this parody on Apple’s iPhone commercial.

Using surprising stimuli or shock advertising is also a technique that works. One study found that shocking content increased attention, benefited memory, and positively influenced behavior among a group of university students (Dahl, et. al., 2003).

Subliminal advertising is the opposite of shock advertising and involves exposing consumers to marketing stimuli such as photos, ads, and messages by stealthily embedding them in movies, ads, and other media. Although there is no evidence that subliminal advertising works, years ago the words Drink Coca-Cola were flashed for a millisecond on a movie screen. Consumers were thought to perceive the information subconsciously and to be influenced to buy the products shown. Many people considered the practice to be subversive, and in 1974, the Federal Communications Commission condemned it. Much of the original research on subliminal advertising, conducted by a researcher trying to drum up business for his market research firm, was fabricated (Crossen, 2007). People are still fascinated by subliminal advertising, however. To create “buzz” about the television show The Mole in 2008, ABC began hyping it by airing short commercials composed of just a few frames. If you blinked, you missed it. Some television stations actually called ABC to figure out what was going on. One-second ads were later rolled out to movie theaters (Adalian, 2008).

Different consumers perceive information differently. A couple of frames about The Mole might make you want to see the television show. However, your friend might see the ad, find it stupid, and never tune in to watch the show. One man sees Pledge, an outstanding furniture polish, while another sees a can of spray no different from any other furniture polish. One woman sees a luxurious Gucci purse, and the other sees an overpriced bag to hold keys and makeup (Chartrand, 2009).

Learning

Learning refers to the process by which consumers change their behavior after they gain information or experience. It’s the reason you don’t buy a bad product twice. Learning doesn’t just affect what you buy; it affects how you shop. People with limited experience about a product or brand generally seek out more information than people who have used a product before.
Companies try to get consumers to learn about their products in different ways. Car dealerships offer test drives. Pharmaceutical reps leave samples and brochures at doctor’s offices. Other companies give consumers free samples. To promote its new line of coffees, McDonald’s offered customers free samples to try. Have you ever eaten the food samples in a grocery store? While sampling is an expensive strategy, it gets consumers to try the product and many customers buy it, especially right after trying in the store.

Companies try to get consumers to learn Another kind of learning is operant or instrumental conditioning, which is what occurs when researchers are able to get a mouse to run through a maze for a piece of cheese or a dog to salivate just by ringing a bell. In other words, learning occurs through repetitive behavior that has positive or negative consequences. Companies engage in operant conditioning by rewarding consumers, which cause consumers to want to repeat their purchasing behaviors. Prizes and toys that come in Cracker Jacks and McDonald’s Happy Meals, free tans offered with gym memberships, a free sandwich after a certain number of purchases, and free car washes when you fill up your car with a tank of gas are examples.about their products in different ways. Car dealerships offer test drives. Pharmaceutical reps leave samples and brochures at doctor’s offices. Other companies give consumers free samples. To promote its new line of coffees, McDonald’s offered customers free samples to try. Have you ever eaten the food samples in a grocery store? While sampling is an expensive strategy, it gets consumers to try the product and many customers buy it, especially right after trying in the store.

Another learning process called classical conditioning occurs by associating a conditioned stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to get a particular response. The more frequently the CS is linked with the US, the faster learning occurs and this is what advertisers and businesses try to do. Think about a meal at a restaurant where the food was really good and you went with someone special. You like the person and want to go out again. It could be that classical conditioning occurred. That is, the food produced a good feeling and you may associate the person with the food, thus producing a good feeling about the person.

Attitude

Attitudes are “mental positions” or emotional feelings, favorable or unfavorable evaluations, and action tendencies people have about products, services, companies, ideas, issues, or institutions3. Attitudes tend to be enduring, and because they are based on people’s values and beliefs, they are hard to change. Companies want people to have positive feelings about their offerings. A few years ago, KFC began running ads to the effect that fried chicken was healthy—until the U.S. Federal Trade Commission told the company to stop. Wendy’s slogan that its products are “way better than fast food” is another example. Fast food has a negative connotation, so Wendy’s is trying to get consumers to think about its offerings as being better.

An example of a shift in consumers’ attitudes occurred when the taxpayer-paid government bailouts of big banks that began in 2008 provoked the wrath of Americans, creating an opportunity for small banks not involved in the credit bailout and subprime mortgage mess. The Worthington National Bank, a small bank in Fort Worth, Texas, ran billboards reading: “Did Your Bank Take a Bailout? We didn’t.” Another read: “Just Say NO to Bailout Banks. Bank Responsibly!” The Worthington Bank received tens of millions in new deposits soon after running these campaigns (Mantone, 2009).

Societal Factors

Situational factors, personal factors, and psychological factors influence what you buy, but only on a temporary basis. Societal factors are a bit different. They are more outward and have broad influences on your beliefs and the way you do things. They depend on the world around you and how it works.

Culture

Culture refers to the shared beliefs, customs, behaviors, and attitudes that characterize a society. Culture is a handed down way of life and is often considered the broadest influence on a consumer’s behavior. Your culture prescribes the way in which you should live and has a huge effect on the things you purchase. For example, in Beirut, Lebanon, women can often be seen wearing miniskirts. If you’re a woman in Afghanistan wearing a miniskirt, however, you could face bodily harm or death. In Afghanistan women generally wear burqas, which cover them completely from head to toe. Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, women must wear what’s called an abaya, or long black garment. Interestingly, abayas have become big business in recent years. They come in many styles, cuts, and fabrics and some are encrusted with jewels and cost thousands of dollars. To read about the fashions women in Muslim countries wear, check out the following article: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1210781,00.html. Even cultures that share many of the same values as the United States can be quite different. Following the meltdown of the financial markets in 2008, countries around the world were pressed by the United States to engage in deficit spending to stimulate the worldwide economy. The plan was a hard sell both to German politicians and to the German people in general. Most Germans don’t own credit cards and running up a lot of debt is something people in that culture generally don’t do. Credit card companies such as Visa, American Express, and MasterCard must understand cultural perceptions about credit.

Subcultures

A subculture is a group of people within a culture who are different from the dominant culture but have something in common with one another such as common interests, vocations or jobs, religions, ethnic backgrounds, and geographic locations. The fastest-growing subculture in the United States consists of people of Hispanic origin, followed by Asian Americans, and African Americans. The purchasing power of U.S. Hispanics continues to grow, exceeding $1 trillion in 20104. Home Depot has launched a Spanish version of its Web site. Walmart is in the process of converting some of its Neighborhood Markets into stores designed to appeal to Hispanics. The Supermarcado de Walmart stores are located in Hispanic neighborhoods and feature elements such as cafés serving Latino pastries and coffee and full meat and fish counters (Birchall, 2009). Marketing products based on the ethnicity of consumers is useful but may become harder to do in the future because the boundaries between ethnic groups are blurring.

Figure 5.4: Sub-culture

Care to join the subculture of the “Otherkin”? Otherkins are primarily Internet users who believe they are reincarnations of mythological or legendary creatures—angels, demons, vampires—you name it.

To read more about the Otherkins and seven other bizarre subcultures, visit http://www.oddee.com/ item_96676.aspx.
(Zior_ – Another Vampire Photo – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.)

Subcultures, such as college students, can develop in response to people’s interests, similarities, and behaviors that allow marketing professionals to design specific products for them. You have probably heard of the hip-hop subculture, people who in engage in extreme types of sports such as helicopter skiing or people who play the fantasy game Dungeons and Dragons.

Social Class

A social class is a group of people who have the same social, economic, or educational status in society. While income helps define social class, the primary variable determining social class is occupation. To some degree, consumers in the same social class exhibit similar purchasing behavior. In many countries, people are expected to marry within their own social class. When asked, people tend to say they are middle class, which is not always correct. Have you ever been surprised to find out that someone you knew who was wealthy drove a beat-up old car or wore old clothes and shoes or that someone who isn’t wealthy owns a Mercedes or other upscale vehicle? While some products may appeal to people in a social class, you can’t assume a person is in a certain social class because they either have or don’t have certain products or brands.
Table 3.1 “An Example of Social Classes and Buying Patterns” shows seven classes of American consumers along with the types of car brands they might buy. Keep in mind that the U.S. market is just a fraction of the world market. The rise of the middle class in India and China is creating opportunities for many companies to successfully sustain their products. For example, China has begun to overtake the United States as the world’s largest auto market (6).

Table 5.1 An Example of Social Classes and Buying Patterns

In a recession when luxury buyers are harder to come by, the makers of upscale brands may want their customer bases to be as large as possible. However, companies don’t want to risk “cheapening” their brands. That’s why, for example, Smart Cars, which are made by BMW, don’t have the BMW label on them. For a time, Tiffany’s sold a cheaper line of silver jewelry to a lot of customers. However, the company later worried that its reputation was being tarnished by the line. Keep in mind that a product’s price is to some extent determined by supply and demand. Luxury brands therefore try to keep the supply of their products in check so their prices remain high.

Figure 5.5: Luxury brands

The whiskey brand Johnnie Walker has managed to expand its market share without cheapening the brand by producing a few lower-priced versions of the whiskey and putting them in bottles with different labels.
(Carlos Ayala – Johnnie Walker Black Label – CC BY-NC 2.0.)

Some companies, such as Johnnie Walker, have managed to capture market share by introducing “lower echelon” brands without damaging their luxury brands. The company’s whiskeys come in bottles with red, green, blue, black, and gold labels. The blue label is the company’s best product. Every blue-label bottle has a serial number and is sold in a silk-lined box, accompanied by a certificate of authenticity (7).

Reference Groups and Opinion Leaders

Reference groups are groups (social groups, work groups, family, or close friends) a consumer identifies with and may want to join. They influence consumers’ attitudes and behavior. If you have ever dreamed of being a professional player of basketball or another sport, you have an aspirational reference group. That’s why, for example, Nike hires celebrities such as Michael Jordan to pitch the company’s products. There may also be dissociative groups or groups where a consumer does not want to be associated.

Opinion leaders are people with expertise in certain areas. Consumers respect these people and often ask their opinions before they buy goods and services. An information technology (IT) specialist with a great deal of knowledge about computer brands is an example. These people’s purchases often lie at the forefront of leading trends. The IT specialist is probably a person who has the latest and greatest tech products, and his opinion of them is likely to carry more weight with you than any sort of advertisement.

Today’s companies are using different techniques to reach opinion leaders. Network analysis using special software is one way of doing so. Orgnet.com has developed software for this purpose. Orgnet’s software doesn’t mine sites like Facebook and LinkedIn, though. Instead, it’s based on sophisticated techniques that unearthed the links between Al Qaeda terrorists. Explains Valdis Krebs, the company’s founder: “Pharmaceutical firms want to identify who the key opinion leaders are. They don’t want to sell a new drug to everyone. They want to sell to the 60 key oncologists” (Campbell, 2004).

Family

Today’s companies are using different techMost market researchers consider a person’s family to be one of the most important influences on their buying behavior. Like it or not, you are more like your parents than you think, at least in terms of your consumption patterns. Many of the things you buy and don’t buy are a result of what your parents bought when you were growing up. Products such as the brand of soap and toothpaste your parents bought and used, and even the “brand” of politics they leaned toward (Democratic or Republican) are examples of the products you may favor as an adult. Companies are interested in which family members have the most influence over certain purchases. Children have a great deal of influence over many household purchases. For example, in 2003 nearly half (47 percent) of nine- to seventeen-year-olds were asked by parents to go online to find out about products or services, compared to 37 percent in 2001. IKEA used this knowledge to design their showrooms. The children’s bedrooms feature fun beds with appealing comforters so children will be prompted to identify and ask for what they want. Marketing to children has come under increasing scrutiny. Some critics accuse companies of deliberately manipulating children to nag their parents for certain products. For example, even though tickets for Hannah Montana concerts ranged from hundreds to thousands of dollars, the concerts often still sold out. However, as one writer put it, exploiting “pester power” is not always ultimately in the long-term interests of advertisers if it alienates kids’ parents (Waddell, 2009).niques to reach opinion leaders. Network analysis using special software is one way of doing so. Orgnet.com has developed software for this purpose. Orgnet’s software doesn’t mine sites like Facebook and LinkedIn, though. Instead, it’s based on sophisticated techniques that unearthed the links between Al Qaeda terrorists. Explains Valdis Krebs, the company’s founder: “Pharmaceutical firms want to identify who the key opinion leaders are. They don’t want to sell a new drug to everyone. They want to sell to the 60 key oncologists” (Campbell, 2004).

Sources

(1) “Wal-Mart Unveils Plans for Own-Label Revamp,” Financial Times, March 17, 2009, 15.

(2) “Designing Cars for the Elderly: A Design Story,” http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/may2008/gb2008056_154197.htm (accessed April 13, 2012).

(3) “Dictionary of Marketing Terms,” http://www.allbusiness.com/glossaries/marketing/4941810-1.html(accessed October 14, 2009).

(4) “Latino Purchasing Power Now Pegged at $1 Trillion,” Mariowire.com, May 4, 2011,
http://www.mariowire.com/2011/05/04/latino-purchasing-power-1-trillion/.

(5) Princeton University, “WordNet,” http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/ webwn?s=social+class&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1&o7=&o5=&o1 =1&o6=&o4=&o3=&h= (accessed October 14, 2009).

(6) “More Cars Sold in China than in January,” France 24, February 10, 2009, http://www.france24.com/en/ 20090210-more-cars-sold-china-us-january-auto-market (accessed October 14, 2009).

(7) “Johnnie Walker,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnnie_Walker (accessed October 14, 2009).

(8) “Teen Market Profile,” Mediamark Research, 2003, http://www.magazine.org/content/files/teenprofile04.pdf(accessed December 4, 2009).

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Barak B. and Steven Gould, “Alternative Age Measures: A Research Agenda,” in Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 12, ed. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1985), 53–58.

Berner, R., “Detergent Can Be So Much More,” BusinessWeek, May 1, 2006, 66–68.

Birchall, J., “Wal-Mart Looks to Hispanic Market in Expansion Drive,” Financial Times, March 13, 2009, 18.

Bird, A., “Retail Industry,” Encyclopedia of Japanese Business and Management (London: Routledge, 2002),399–400.

Campbell, A., “Marketing to Opinion Leaders,” Small Business Trends, June 28, 2004, http://smallbiztrends.com/2004/06/marketing-to-opinion-leaders.html (accessed October 13, 2009).

Chartrand, J., “Why Targeting Selective Perception Captures Immediate Attention,” http://www.copyblogger.com/selective-perception (accessed October 14, 2009).

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Dahl, D. W., Kristina D. Frankenberger, and Rajesh V. Manchanda, “Does It Pay to Shock? Reactions to Shocking and Nonshocking Advertising Content among University Students,” Journal of Advertising Research 43,no. 3 (2003): 268–80.

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Ward, A., “Products of Our Time,” Fort Worth Star-Telegram, March 7, 2009, 1E.

Hard Candy is the eleventh studio album by American singer and songwriter Madonna. It was released on April 29, 2008, by Warner Bros. Records. The album was her final studio album with the record company, marking the end of a 25-year recording history.^[1] Madonna started working on the album in early 2007, and collaborated with Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, The Neptunes and Nate "Danja" Hills. The album's sound is primarily dance-pop, pop, hip hop, electropop, disco, electro, funk and R&B. The Pet Shop Boys were also asked to collaborate with Madonna on the album by Warner Bros., but the record company later changed their mind and withdrew their invitation.

The singer became interested in collaborating with Timberlake after hearing his 2006 album FutureSex/LoveSounds. Together they developed a number of songs for the album, but the basis of the development was Pharrell Williams' demos. Madonna had a number of songs written down for the album, which amazed Timberlake. They had intensive discussions among themselves before recording a song. Later, Madonna recalled that most of the songs on Hard Candy were autobiographical in many respects. However, according to her this was not intentional and happened while she was in the process of developing the album.

Madonna had initially decided to portray herself as the Black Madonna for the cover art, and call it the same, but later felt the idea may have been seen as controversial. She instead named the album Hard Candy, which refers to the juxtaposition of toughness and sweetness. Critical reaction to the album were generally favorable, though some reviewers condemned it for its attempt to harness the urban market. On release Hard Candy debuted at number one in 37 countries worldwide, including the United States, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Spain and the United Kingdom and became the eleventh best-selling album worldwide of 2008. The album has sold more than 4 million copies worldwide.

Three singles were released from the album. The first, "4 Minutes", was a worldwide success, topping the charts in 21 countries and becoming Madonna's 37th Billboard Hot 100 top-ten hit. Other singles released were "Give It 2 Me" and "Miles Away". To promote the album, Madonna went on a small promotional tour, where she played in three cities in small venues. Furthermore, Madonna embarked on a concert tour, entitled the Sticky & Sweet Tour between 2008 and 2009, which went on to become the highest-grossing concert tour ever by a solo artist.

Background and development[edit]

In February 2007, Timbaland said that he was working with Madonna for her upcoming eleventh studio album.^[2] It was Madonna's last studio album for Warner Bros. Records, and following the release of a greatest hits collection (Celebration), she would join Live Nation Artists, a new initiative launched by concert promoter Live Nation. The 10-year deal with Live Nation encompassed all of Madonna's future music and music-related businesses, including the exploitation of the Madonna brand, new studio albums, touring, merchandising, fan clubs/Web sites, DVDs, music-related television and film projects and associated sponsorship agreements.^[3] In August 2007, Timbaland spoke about the development of the album to MTV News. Together he and Justin Timberlake were confirmed to have worked on the album with Madonna and said that they wrote ten songs for her. Songs confirmed to have been developed were "La, La" and "Candy Shop", which was written by Pharrell Williams.^[4] Timbaland added,

"Me and Justin did the records. [Madonna's] got a hot album. Her album is up there with Justin's album. [...] Ah, man, there's this one song, we taking it back to 'You must be my luck-eee starrrr!' ... Remember 'Ugly' by Bubba Sparxxx? I got a beat similar to that. The hook is no words. It's saying stuff named after coffee... The name of the song is 'La, La'. Pharrell did a hot one for her too called 'Candy Shop'."^[4]

Timbaland finished off by saying that the title of the album was not decided then, but he had to reconvene with Madonna to complete the record by September 2007.^[4] MTV described the new album as moving in an urban direction. It had initially been defined as having "a lot of producers from a lot of genres in there."^[5]Pet Shop Boys were originally asked by Warner to write and produce some songs for the album. Timbaland referred to the album as being "like 'Holiday' with an R&B groove".^[6]

Recording[edit]

Hard Candy features additional vocals by Timberlake, Timbaland, Pharrell Williams and Kanye West and production by Madonna, Timbaland, Timberlake, The Neptunes and Nate "Danja" Hills.^[7] Previously, Madonna had worked with relatively unknown producers like William Orbit, Mirwais Ahmadzaï and Stuart Price. However, for Hard Candy Madonna decided to collaborate with producers and artists who were already well-known. Talking to MTV, Madonna explained her decision to collaborate with well-known producers: "Because they're good, and I like their shit. [...] I mean, I don't like to repeat myself, and I was sitting around thinking, 'What music do I love right now?' And it was actually [Timberlake's] record FutureSex/LoveSounds. [...] I was listening to it obsessively."^[8]

Madonna had already started work on the album with Williams, and during one of her breaks from recording, her manager Guy Oseary spoke to Timberlake, suggesting that it "would be cool" if he recorded some songs with her.^[8] Timberlake commented "'That would be awesome,' but I thought, 'That'll never happen', [...] But it's a testament to Pharrell. He had already laid the groundwork where she was going with it. She played 'Candy Shop' for me, and a couple of other songs, and I thought, 'What a cool direction.' I thought she could essentially do the whole record with Pharrell if she wanted to, and I asked Tim, 'How do we fit in?' And it basically came down to how we did my record, co-producing, and just throwing Madonna in the mix."^[8] The first track recorded by Madonna and Timberlake was "Devil Wouldn't Recognize You". Timberlake felt that the song, which Madonna had been working on for years before the Hard Candy project, was comparable to "Frozen" (1998). He wanted to turn the line "'The devil wouldn't recognize you, but I do" into a catchy hook and make it sound like a concept.^[8]

Timberlake was impressed by the amount of recording material Madonna would already have ready. He said that he does not normally write down his lyrics, since the ideas come faster to him, but Madonna had "all these thoughts, riddles, poems, feelings, all written in huge notebooks ... she kept handing them over. It was amazing, taking these little bits here and there and putting them together like a puzzle." For recording "Miles Away", Timberlake played a guitar riff for Madonna and asked "How do we want to do this? What do we want it to be about? What do we want to say?"^[8] Madonna decided to have discussions between herself and Timberlake to develop other ideas for the songs. One of the ideas they connected on was the universality of long-distance relationships, which they felt was too personal for them, but nevertheless used the concept in "Miles Away". Madonna commented on the recorded version: "We put our stuff out there. [...] And after we did the song, everybody in the studio was like, 'Oh, I can relate to that.'"^[8]

Music structure and composition[edit]

With Interview magazine, Madonna explained her inspirations behind the songs and the music of Hard Candy. She said that "probably in many respects most of the songs [on Hard Candy] are [autobiographical]. But in more of an unconscious way. I don't really think about telling personal stories when I'm writing music. It just comes. And then a lot of times, six months later, eight months later, I go, 'Oh, that's what I wrote that song about.' But that's when I play the song for lots of people and they all go, 'Oh, I can totally relate to that.'"^[9] Sonically, Hard Candy is a dance-pop,^[10][11]pop,^[12][13]hip hop,^{[13][14][15][16][17]}electropop,^[12]disco,^[12][14][18]electro,^[12]funk^[16] and R&B^[17] record.

"Candy Shop" is the opening track of the album. Produced by Williams, the song uses the word candy as a metaphor for sex. Williams said, "We were just in a studio, [...] and [Madonna] was like, 'Look, give me some hot shit.' I was looking at her like, 'She's saying hot shit?' She was like, 'What?' And I'm like, 'OK.' So we just worked and made it."^[5] The first single from the album, "4 Minutes", was initially known as "4 Minutes to Save the World". The song's development was motivated by a sense of urgency to save the planet from destruction, and how people can enjoy themselves in the process.^[19] According to Madonna, the song inspired her to produce the documentary I Am Because We Are.^[19] The song features vocals by Timberlake and Timbaland. An uptempo dance song with an urban, hip hop style, it also incorporates Timbaland's bhangra beats. The instrumentation used in the song includes brass, foghorns and cow bells. The song's lyrics carry a message of social awareness, inspired by Madonna's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed.^[9]

In "Give It 2 Me", the album's second single, Madonna merged bounce-beats and a funky bassline. "If it's against the law, arrest me", she sings "If you can handle it, undress me." The song has a short interlude where Madonna continuously repeats the words "Get stupid", as Williams chants, "To the left, to the right". "Give It 2 Me" was written by Madonna as an anthemic, self-manifesto song which, although it appears to be about dance and sex, is a reference to Madonna's career spanning three decades in the music industry. Musically it is an upbeat dance song, featuring instrumentation from West African percussion and cowbells. Backing vocals are provided by Williams.^[9] The fourth track "Heartbeat" has Madonna singing breathlessly and also features an interlude where the music changes from its normal rhythm, just the sound of drums.^[21]

MTV said that "Miles Away", the third single from the album, was the most deceptively simple track because although it appeared straightforward on the surface, it had a lot of technical tricks underneath it. The song departs from the dance theme of the album and deals with the difficulties of long-distance relationships.^[5] "Miles Away" is a melancholy electronic ballad, which, according to Madonna is autobiographical, and is inspired by her then husband Guy Ritchie.^[20] The relationship themed lyrics continue in the next track "She's Not Me", which talks about Madonna being emulated by another woman, hence she utters the line "She started dressing like me and talking like me, It freaked me out, She started calling you up in the middle of the night, What's that about?"^[5]

The next track "Incredible" starts off like a love song and then transforms into a plea to someone to return to a relationship. The song changes rhythm at the interlude to mimic this change in tone. In a promotional interview, Madonna described the song as full of "angst and desire" and "wanting to get back to a feeling of happiness and fulfillment," but also containing a feeling of abandonment. In a review of the album on MTV, the shift in the structure of the song reflected Madonna's own confusion about how she felt about her lover in the song. "Can't get my head around it", she sang. "I, I need to think about it."^[5] "Beat Goes On," featuring West, has a 70s R&B meeting 80s dance vibe and a rap interlude by West.^[21] Williams has commented that Madonna's work ethic was different from other artists that he had worked with before. That is reflected in songs like "Spanish Lesson" where she sings the line "If you do your homework/ Baby I will give you more". It also has influences of Spanish music.^[21]Groove inspired music is present in "Dance 2Night", which featured Timberlake.^[5]

"Devil Wouldn't Recognize You" was written by Madonna before the Hard Candy project started. The song has a sense of mystery and starts off softly and slowly with a piano introduction. It then becomes fast and melancholy, with Madonna singing: "Your eyes are full of surprises/ They cannot predict my fate". The trip hop inspired "Voices" is the last track of the album, consisting of unresolved chords and sweeping strings, as the lyrics question who is really in control: "Are you walking the dog?/ Is the dog walking you?"^[5]

Release and artwork[edit]

Madonna wanted to portray herself as the Black Madonna for the cover art, but rejected the idea.

Hard Candy was released on April 25, 2008, in the European countries of Germany, Ireland, Austria, Italy and Netherlands. On April 28, the album was released in the United Kingdom, Brazil and throughout the rest of Europe,^[22] and on April 29, in the United States, Mexico and Canada.^[23][24]Billboard reported that the title of the album was Licorice, as announced on the Sirius Satellite Radio programme OutQ.^[3] In an interview with MTV Australia, Madonna explained that a prominent theme of the Hard Candy album was about incorporating the image of a boxer, an idea which has been repeated within the song "Give It 2 Me". According to her, "['Give It 2 Me'] is basically [opposite in meaning]. I'm not [...], 'give me all you got' [kind of person], so it's quite a sort of tough stance." Hence, initially Madonna decided that the title of the song was to be used for the then-unnamed album. This was changed following the release of a similarly named song by Timbaland.^[19] After that, Madonna decided to call the album Black Madonna, and even shot a photograph for the cover art, wearing blackface make-up with white eyes. In a 2009 interview with Rolling Stone Madonna commented:

"I did a photoshoot with Steven Klein for my last album cover, and I painted my face black, except for red lips and white eyes. It was a play on words. Have you ever heard of the Black Madonna? It has layers of meaning and for a minute, I thought it would be a fun title for my record. Then I thought, 'Twenty-five per cent of the world might get this, probably less, it's not worth it.' It happens all the time, because my references are usually off the Richter scale."^[25]

The title of the album was finally confirmed by MTV as Hard Candy. Madonna's representative Liz Rosenberg told Entertainment Weekly: "She loves candy, [...] [The title is] about the juxtaposition of tough and sweetness, or as Madonna so eloquently expressed: 'I'm gonna kick your ass, but it's going to make you feel good."^[26] The album cover art was also released at the same time and featured Madonna with short cropped hair in a black leotard with a professional wrestlingchampionship belt across her waist. The belt includes the inscription "Give It to Me", the original title of the album. The backdrop displayed pink peppermint swirls.^[27] The photo was taken during a photoshoot with Klein for Interview magazine's April 2008 issue.^{[citation needed]}

Promotion[edit]

Seven songs from the album were made available for download by mobile phone during the week prior to the album's official release.^[28] Beginning on April 21 and ending on April 27, 2008, the songs "Candy Shop", "Miles Away", "Give It 2 Me", "Heartbeat", "Beat Goes On", "Devil Wouldn't Recognize You" and "She's Not Me" were distributed. Additionally, Hard Candy and the "4 Minutes" music video were pre-loaded onto the Samsung F400 in France. In other markets, Vodafone and Warner Music International made an arrangement which saw the music and other forms of mobile content from "Hard Candy" available exclusively to Vodafone mobile customers prior to the album's general release.^[29] A similar deal was made with Sony Ericsson, who offered the album pre-loaded onto their phones in 27 different countries worldwide.^[30]Hard Candy was also streamed on MySpace four days before its United States release.^[31] Furthermore, the season finale of Ugly Betty's second season, "Jump", solely featured Madonna's music. "Candy Shop", "Spanish Lesson", "She's Not Me" and "Miles Away" were played, as well as the 2006 single "Jump".^[32] "Miles Away" was also used in the Japanese TV drama Change.^[33]

Hard Candy Promo Tour[edit]

Madonna and her dancers opening the Hard Candy Promo Tour with a performance of "Candy Shop".

Following the album's release, Madonna went on a promotional tour for the album, which was the first venture as part of her new contract with concert promoters Live Nation with media content provided by "Frank the Plumber LLC".^[34] The show consisted of a 40-minute set featuring six songs, with dates in New York City, Paris and Maidstone. In an interview with the BBC, Madonna stated:^[35]

"Obviously, I want to do new stuff because I'm very excited about it. I feel that's what people come to hear but I also want to do a few of my oldies but goodies. I chose "Hung Up" because that was the biggest hit from my last record and I chose "Music" because it's a crowd pleaser, it's anthemic and it brings people together."

The show had an expandable, five-platform stage which displayed the album's cover art.^[36] Madonna, wearing a skintight black suit and a lace top, appeared on the stage while sitting on a throne with a golden walking stick, as the music of "Candy Shop" started. Images of confectionery flashed on the television screens flanking the back of the stage. Madonna, along with her six dancers, gyrated in choreographed dance moves. Next, Madonna strapped on an acoustic guitar, took a swig from a champagne bottle and started singing "Miles Away", as images of planes taking off and landing, airports and various locations around the globe were projected across the screens behind her.^[36] After that "4 Minutes" was performed, which mimicked its video with a flashing countdown clock. Then Madonna paused for a moment to thank her collaborators, including Timberlake, West, Timbaland and others. "I feel like the luckiest girl in the world", she said, before dedicating the next song, "Hung Up" from 2005's Confessions on a Dance Floor, to her fans.^[36] The song was mixed with The Rolling Stones track "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction".^[37] It was followed by "Give It 2 Me", during which pink and green disco beams pulsated across the crowd. The show ended with a performance of "Music" (2000), during which her dancers emerged from a false, silver subway car door. Madonna danced across the stage, touching the hands of the audience and ended the show by racing up the stage to the subway doors, behind which she disappeared.^[36]

Chris Harris from MTV reviewed the show at Roseland Ballroom, New York, and commented that "It was an event better-suited for Madison Square Garden and one that these fans — many of whom probably had to call a sitter for the evening — won't soon forget."^[36] Ben Sisario from The New York Times commented "for Madonna's fans, [the New York show] proved that seeing her for free in a 2,200-capacity hall — minuscule by her usual touring standards — was something worth waiting for. And waiting for a very long time."^[37] Silvio Pietrolungo from Billboard felt that "The crowd of 2,200 was certainly dedicated."^[38] The April 30, 2008, New York set was shown live via MSN in association with Control Room and Live Nation. It was broadcast internationally on May 15, 2008.^[39] The Maidstone show faced problems with the organisers due to Madonna's use of swearing, causing complaints to be made to the BBC when the show was aired on Radio 1.^[40]

Sticky & Sweet Tour[edit]

To further promote the album, Madonna embarked on the Sticky & Sweet Tour, her eighth worldwide concert tour. It began in August 2008 and was Madonna's first tour from her new recording and business deal with Live Nation. The tour was announced in February 2008, with dates for American and British venues revealed.^[41] Though initially planned, the tour failed to visit Australia due to financial problems and the financial recession.^[42] Costume designer Arianne Phillips designed the costumes, supported by a number of famous designers and brands, namely Givenchy, Stella McCartney, Yves Saint Laurent, Roberto Cavalli, and Jeremy Scott.^[43] The stage for the main show was planned similarly to that of her 2006 Confessions Tour. After the Sticky & Sweet Tour concluded in 2008, Madonna announced plans to begin a second European leg in 2009 to perform in cities she had either never been to, or had not played for a long time.^[44]

The tour was described as a "rock driven dancetastic journey".^[43] It was divided into four acts: Pimp, where S&M was the main theme, Old School where Madonna's classic songs were performed alongside displays of the work of deceased artist Keith Haring, Gypsy, a fusion of Romani folk music and dance, with performances ranging from melancholy to joyous, and Rave, where she performed track's featuring Eastern influences. The show ended with a sing-along of the final song with the audience. Some changes were made to the set list during the second European leg of the tour in 2009, including a dance tribute to deceased singer Michael Jackson.^[45] The tour generated positive reviews from critics.^[46][47]

The Sticky & Sweet Tour broke many records in terms of ticket sales, commercial gross and audience attendance.^[48] After the first leg, it became the highest-grossing tour by a solo artist, earning $282 million, breaking the previous record Madonna herself held with her Confessions Tour.^[49] Overall, Madonna performed to over 3.5 million fans in 32 countries, grossing a total of US$408 million, making it also the second highest-grossing tour of all time and the highest-grossing tour by a solo artist.^[50] At the 2009 Billboard Touring Awards, the Sticky & Sweet Tour won the Top Tour and Top Draw prizes, which acknowledge the highest-grossing and highest-attended tours of the year, respectively. Madonna's manager Guy Oseary won the Top Manager award.^[51]

Singles[edit]

	A 24 second sample of "4 Minutes" by Madonna, featuring Justin Timberlake, which was a worldwide success, topping the charts of most major musical markets and becoming Madonna's 37th Billboard Hot 100 top-ten hit.
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"4 Minutes" was released as the lead single from the album on March 17, 2008 by Warner Bros. Records. "4 Minutes" has been praised by many contemporary critics. Some have noted, however, that it was Madonna rather than Timberlake who appeared to be the featured artist on the track.^[52] "4 Minutes" achieved international success by topping the charts in 21 countries worldwide.^[53] It became Madonna's 13th number-one single in the United Kingdom, the highest total for any female artist in the British charts.^[54] In the United States, "4 Minutes" peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, giving Madonna her 37th Top Ten hit, breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley.^[55] In the song's accompanying music video, Madonna and Timberlake sing and run away from a giant black screen that devours everything in its path. At the end of the video, Madonna and Timberlake are consumed by the screen.^[24] The song received a Grammy nomination in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category.^[56]

"Give It 2 Me" was released on June 4, 2008 by Warner Bros. Records as the second single from the album. The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics.^[52] It became Madonna's 39th number-one single on the BillboardHot Dance Club Play chart.^[57] It charted on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week, and reached a peak of 57 only.^[58] The song topped the music charts in the Netherlands and Spain and attained top-ten positions on the charts of many other European nations.^[59] "Give It 2 Me" received a Grammy nomination in 2009 in the Best Dance Recording category.^[56] "Miles Away" was released as the third and final single from the album, on October 17, 2008. It received positive appreciation from contemporary critics, though some of them noted its similarity to Timberlake's 2006 single, "What Goes Around... Comes Around".^[52] "Miles Away" reached the top forty in the official charts of United Kingdom, Canada, Belgium, and the Netherlands.^[54][59] The song did not appear on the official chart of the United States, but it was a success on the US dance charts, where it became Madonna's seventh consecutive number-one song on the Hot Dance Airplay chart, the most for any artist.^[60]

Critical reception[edit]

Hard Candy received generally favorable reviews. The album received a score of 65/100 on Metacritic, which indicates "generally favorable reviews".^[61] Mark Savage from the BBC commented on the composition of the tracks, saying "if a handful of the tracks had been delivered to more producers with a touch more subtlety, Hard Candy could have ranked alongside Madonna's best. [...] Over and over again, she subsumes her pop sensibilities to their arsenal of clattering beats, hollered raps and over-fussy production."^[70]Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that "There's a palpable sense of disinterest [in Hard Candy], as if she just handed the reins over to Pharrell and Timba-Lake, trusting them to polish up this piece of stale candy. Maybe she's not into the music, maybe she's just running out this last album for Warner before she moves onto the greener pastures of Live Nation—either way, Hard Candy is as a rare thing: a lifeless Madonna album."^[52]

Tom Young from Blender gave a positive review saying "On Hard Candy, she's like an aging master thief sneaking into the temple of pop goodies for one last big score. Album 11 is good-naturedly smutty, not confrontationally nasty, but it's a veritable filth bath compared to the C-SPAN sermons and confessional strumming of 2003's dreadful American Life or the woozily self-actualized club trance of 2005's Confessions on a Dance Floor."^[62] Kerri Mason from Billboard complimented the new sound and the musical direction taken by Madonna but felt that she had become a producer's puppet, leading her to comment that "Madonna makes producers, producers don't make Madonna."^[63] Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+ and said "[Madonna] makes it work with this surprisingly rejuvenated set."^[64] Mike Collett-White from Reuters reported: "As parting gifts go, Madonna's 11th studio album—and her last before she exits long-term record label Warner Bros.—is unusually generous, if early reviews are to be believed. [...] Hard Candy scored solidly among rock critics."^[71]

Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone said that Hard Candy is the work of "a songwriting team of American chart royalty" that helps Madonna "revisit her roots as an urban-disco queen. [...] For Hard Candy, she lets top-shelf producers make her their plaything."^[68] Ben Thompson from The Guardian commented on the music by saying that "Hard Candy is a tough, nuggety confection offering plenty for listeners to get their teeth into. [...] Whenever [it] threatens to get boring, something always happens to recapture your interest."^[65] Sarah Hajibegari from The Times felt that while "Hard Candy is no disaster", the album's producers have "already done the same thing with Nelly Furtado, Britney Spears and Gwen Stefani."^[69] Andy Gill from The Independent said that the album portrayed Madonna as "how a once diverse talent has ossified into simply satisfying the sweet tooth of functional dance-pop."^[10] Thomas Hausner from PopMatters wrote that the album "is overpopulated with recycled pop that is indistinguishable and artificial, something Madonna's soothing arpeggiating vocals cannot alleviate".^[67]

Tom Ewing from Pitchfork wondered "after listening [to the album], the question's still open—nobody involved in Hard Candy is anywhere near their creative peak!"^[72] Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was disappointed with the album and said, "Madonna hasn't delivered this many vapid floor fillers on one disc since her debut, and maybe not even then. [...] There are few confessions here—nothing political, nothing too spiritual, no talk of fame, war, or the media. It's just what America ordered."^[14] Wilfred Young from NME felt that Hard Candy was "a solid enough album by the standards of most pop tarts, but from the mistress of innovation? Pretty mediocre."^[66]

Commercial performance[edit]

After its release, Hard Candy debuted at number-one in 37 countries and was the eleventh best-selling album worldwide in 2008, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry.^[73][74] The album has sold more than four million copies worldwide.^[75] According to Nielsen SoundScan, Hard Candy sold 100,000 copies in the United States upon its first day of release.^[76] It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with over 280,000 copies sold. Hard Candy became Madonna's seventh number-one album, making her the female artist with the second most Billboard number one albums, behind only Barbra Streisand.^[77] The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on June 4, 2008, for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States.^[78] As of December 2016, Hard Candy has sold 751,000 copies.^[79] In Canada, the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the Music Canada (MC) for shipments of 80,000 copies.^[80][81]

In Australia, Hard Candy became Madonna's seventh album to reach number one on the ARIA Albums Chart.^[82] The album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 copies there.^[83] In New Zealand, Hard Candy debuted and peaked at number five on May 5, 2008, staying on the chart for nine weeks.^[84] The album debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly album chart in Japan, selling around 55,462 copies, retaining that position for a second week due to an increase of sales to almost 80,000 copies.^[85]Hard Candy was her first album to top the chart in 18 years since I'm Breathless (1990). Madonna also became the first international artist in Japanese chart history to have number-one albums in three consecutive decades.^[86] In Latin America the album reached number three in Mexico and was certified double Gold.^[87][88] In Argentina, the album reached three on the Monthly Album chart of CAPIF,^[89] and was certified platinum.^[90]

Hard Candy also debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, making Madonna one of the few artists to achieve ten number one albums, behind Elvis Presley, with eleven, and The Beatles, with fifteen.^[91] The album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of over 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.^[92] According to the Official Charts Company, Hard Candy has sold 335,523 copies in the UK, as of September 2009.^[93] It also reached the top of the European Top 100 Albums chart.^[94] In Germany, the album debuted at the top of the Media Control Charts and was present for forty weeks.^[95] In Ireland, the album debuted at the top of the Irish charts, replacing 25 Years – 25 Songs by Mary Black.^[96] The album was particularly successful in Brazil, where the songs "4 Minutes", "Give It 2 Me", "Heartbeat", "Beat Goes On" and "Candy Shop" were all certified platinum, for sales of 100,000 copies of the songs as digital downloads.^[97]

Track listing[edit]